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A  UTHOR: 


LACEY,  THOMAS  JAMES 


TITLE: 


A  STUDY  OF  SOCIAL 
HEREDITY  AS... 

PLACE: 

[NEW  YORK] 

DA  TE: 

[19161 


COLUMBIA  UNIVEE^ITY  LIBRARIES 
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Restrictions  on  Use:      / 


Lacey,  Thomas  James,  1870-  :  I 

A  study  of  social  heredity  as  illustrated  in  the  Greek 
people,  by  Thomas  James  Lacey  ...  [New  York,  E.  S. 
Gorham,  1916]  -  \ 


76  p.    23J 


em 


Thesis  (ph.  d.)— New  York  university,  1915. 

"List  of  citations  from  and  references  to  authorities":  p.  69-73;  Bib- 
liography: p.  74-76. 


-Copy— in-Burgesii^ 1 1916j 

1.  National  characteristics,  Greek. .  2.  Greeks  in  the  U.  S.    3.  Heredity 


Library  of  Congress 
New  York  Univ.  Libr. 


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GIVEN  BY 


Mrs.  Carroll  N.  Brown 


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A  STUDY  OF  SOCIAL  HEREDITY 


AS  ILLUSTRATED  IN 


THE    GREEK    PEOPLE 


#• 


BY 


THOMAS  JAMES  LACEY 


i 


B.A.  (Griswold  College),  B.S.  (New  York  University), 
M.A.  (Columbia  University),  B.D.  (Seabury  Divinity  School), 

Ph.D.  (New  York  University). 


This  thesis  has  been  accepted  by  the  Graduate  School  of  New  York 
University,  in  partial  fulfilment  of  the  requirements  for  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Philosophy..'.    .*.    ; 


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Mrs.Oarroil  JH.Btowxl 


CONTENTS. 

Introduction. 

1.  Social  heredity  distinct  from  physical  heredity. 

2.  Race  characteristics. 

3.  Descent  of  modern  Greeks— a  subject  of  controversy. 

4.  Statement  of  the  thesis. 

Part.  I.    Survey  of  the  Life  of  Ancient  Greece. 
A.  Centrifugal  forces. 

1.  The  passion  for  local  autonomy. 

a.  Greek  versus  Latin  city  state. 

b.  Hellenic  attitude  in  Plato  and  Aristotle. 

c.  Why  the  Athenian  empire  was  repugnant  to  Greece. 

d.  Enthusiasm  for  politics. 

2.  The  spirit  of  individualism  and  personal  liberty. 

a.  The  freedom  of  a  Greek  city. 

b.  The  Athenian  democracy  and  the  individual. 

c.  Why  the  Sophist  appeal  found  ready  response. 

3.  The  enormous  energy  seeking  outlet  in 

a.  Colonization. 

b.  War. 

a.  The  Greek  as  a  soldier. 

c.  Commerce. 

a.  Honesty  of  the  Greeks. 

b.  Graft  among  the  Athenians. 


.  •  •  • 

••  •  •  •  « 

>    •  •  • 

*•  •  •  • 


%  B.  Unifying  forces. 

1.  The  idea  of  common  ancestry. 

a.  Greek  vs.  Barbarian. 

b.  Racial  pride  and  intolerance. 

2.  A  common  language. 

a.  The  Greek  tongue  as  a  vehicle  of  expression. 

b.  A  revelation  of  mental  alertness. 

c.  Periclean  Hterature  and  art. 

3.  Religion  and  Games. 

a.  Supreme  importance  of  religion  in  the  city  state. 

b.  Close  relation  of  religious  and  civic  life. 

c.  Religion  as  a  bond  of  nationality. 

a.  Delphic  Oracle. 

b.  Unique  place  of  Olympic  Games  in  Greek  life. 

C.   Why  the  social  consciousness  of  Greece  never  reached  full  develop- 
ment? 


•  •  •• 

•  • 

•  • « 


•  « •  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  •  • 


•  « 


.:S!fiSS^^:^ 


Part  IL    Modern  Greek  Life— A  Comparison  with  the  Ancient  to  Dis- 
cover THE  Persistence  of  Common  Factors. 

A.  Establishment  of  the  modern  Greek  Kingdom  and  survival  of  the 

idea  of  the  city  state,  political  turmoil,  and  rivalry  of  parties. 

B.  Pronounced  Individuahsm  of  Modern  Greeks. 

a.  Greek  factiousness. 

b.  Personal  element  in  Greek  politics. 

c.  Greek  aversion  to  discipline. 

C.  Energy  of  Modern  Greeks  in 

1.  Immigration. 

2.  War. 

a.  Estimate  of  the  Greek  as  a  soldier. 

3.  Commerce. 

D.  Race  Pride  of  Modern  Greek. 

1.  Fixed  behef  in  classic  ancestry. 

2.  Their  racial  intolerance. 

a.  Greek  and  Bulgar. 

b.  Greeks  and  Syro-Arabs. 

E.  Modern  Greek  Language  and  Its  Relation  to  the  Classic. 

F.  The  Greek  Church. 

a.  Identification  of  religion  and  nationality. 

b.  Changed  content  of  religion  l3Ut  same  form. 

c.  Does  a  people  ever  change  its  religion? 

d.  Same  mental  attitude  toward  religion  in  ancient  and  modern 

Greece. 

Part  III.    Greeks  in  America. 

1.  Greek  immigration. 

Causes — Growth — Geographical  distribution — Occupations. 

2.  Unifying  influences. 

a.  The  Greek  Church. 

b.  The  Pan-Hellenic  Union. 

c.  The  Greek  Newspaper. 

d.  The  Coffee-House. 

3.  Some  of  the  principal  colonies  in  the  U.  S.  and  a  sketch  of  my  visits  to 

them: 

a.  New  York. 

b.  Chicago. 

c.  Lowell. 

d.  Tarpon  Springs. 

4.  Does  the  immigrant  reproduce  the  characteristics  we  have  seen  at  home 

and  in  the  past? 

5.  Will  the  Greek  make  a  desirable  citizen? 

Conclusion. 

1.  Respective  spheres  of  physical  and  social  heredity. 

2.  Large  role  of  social  heredity  in  civilization  and  progress. 


%] 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  term  "heredity"  is  apt  to  suggest  its  biologic  signification-- 
the  transmission  of  physical  qualities  from  parent  to  offspring.  This 
racial  heredity  is  responsible  for  such  physical  characteristics  as  the 
form  of  head,  texture  of  hair,  color  of  the  iris,  etc.  The  prominent 
cheek  bones  and  oblique  eyes  of  the  Mongol,  and  the  thick,  protrud- 
ing lips  of  the  negro  are  matters  of  physical  heredity.  "In  children," 
says  Fairbanks,  "the  physical  peculiarities  of  parents  and  of  earlier 
generations  tend  to  reappear.  .  .  .  Descendants  of  the  same 
ancestors  have  the  same  physical  nature  and  a  tendency  to  develop 
the  same  psychical  characteristics."^  This  organic  heredity,  as 
Professor  Conn  says,  "concerns  the  germinal  substance  in  the 
egg  and  sperm.  It  is  fixed  and  determined  by  the  mixture  of  the 
germinal  substance  of  the  two  parents  in  sex  union.  It  is  not  capable 
of  being  modified  by  any  action  of  the  individual  and  is  unmodified 
by  any  kind  of  acquired  variations."^ 

Social  heredity,  on  the  other  hand,  is  distinct  from  physical 
heredity.  It  is  not  a  biologic  process.  It  is  entirely  outside  tiie 
realm  of  biology.  Acquisition  proceeds  sociologically.  Social 
heredity  is  the  social  transmission  of  achievement.  Professor  Ward 
says :  "Knowledge,  the  social  germ  plasm,  is  incapable  of  hereditary 
transmission.  Social  heredity  consists  in  the  social  transmission  of 
this  plasm  from  generation  to  generation.  This  is  not  a  vital  but  a 
social  process.  It  consists  in  planting  knowledge  into  individual 
minds  after  they  are  born.  No  one  is  born  with  the  least  rudiment 
of  it  inherent  in  his  mental  constitution.  Every  one  must  acquire 
every  item  of  it  during  life.  Cut  off  any  portion  of  mankind  from 
the  main  stream  of  thought  and  it  loses  at  once  all  that  has  been 
bequeathed  to  the  civilized  world  at  such  enormous  cost.  This 
knowledge,  wrought  by  toil  and  struggle,  by  patience  and  thought, 
by  genius  and  skill,  and  heaped  up  little  by  little  through  ages  of 


time,  is  the  Promethean  fire  that  must  never  be  allowed  to  go  out."^ 

Social  heredity,  as  Professor  Conn  points  out,  is  in  marked  con- 
trast to  physical  heredity.  It  does  not  at  all  concern  the  germinal 
substance  in  the  egg  and  is  not  fixed  by  the  union  of  germ  sub- 
stances in  sex  union.  It  is  capable  of  being  modified  by  the  action 
of  individuals  and  may  be  entirely  changed  by  the  development  of 
newly  acquired  variations.  It  has  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with 
the  evolution  of  the  human  animal  but  much  to  do  with  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  civilized  human  race.  Civilization  is  handed  on  from 
parent  to  child  throughout  the  generations  in  a  way  totally  distinct 
from  that  which  our  students  of  heredity  have  been  studying.  This 
power  of  handing  on  the  accumulated  material  and  mental  posses- 
sions, the  customs,  habits,  methods  of  thought,  is  social  heredity. 
Social  heredity  is  controlled  by  its  own  laws.  They  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  laws  or  organic  heredity  to  which  they  are  diamet- 
rically opposite."* 

Institutions,  language,  religious  ideas,  certain  mental  traits  and 
aptitudes  are  perpetuated  through  the  social  contact  of  successive 
generations.  This  implies  an  attitude  of  mind  which  enables  a  people 
to  enter  into  sympathy  with  institutions,  appropriate  them,  assimi- 
late them,  and  having  made  them  their  own,  to  reproduce  them  as 
far  as  conditions  permit. 

The  net  work  of  common  traditions,  ideas,  sentiments,  beliefs, 
modes  of  thinking,  which  enters  so  largely  into  what  LeBon  calls 
the  "soul  of  a  people,"  owes  its  persistence  to  social  heredity.^ 

Social  heredity  is  the  basis  of  Bluntschli's  distinction  between  a 
race  and  a  nation.  "Races  are  due  to  nature's  creative  energy. 
Nations  are  the  products  of  human  history."^  They  are  distin- 
guished by  spirit,  character,  language,  law. 

What  we  popularly  designate  as  racial  characteristics  are  cultural, 
not  natural.  They  have  their  origin  in  the  social  consciousness. 
The  basis  of  nationality  is  "kulturgemeinschaft."  There  is  an 
original,  natural  endowment  common  to  both  savage  and  savant; 
but  if  you  strip  any  nation  of  its  acquired  characteristics  and  reduce 
it  to  its  natural  endowment  alone,  it  ceases  to  have  the  distinctive 
traits  of  Italian,  Spaniard,  Greek  or  Anglo-Saxon  long  before  you 
get  down  to  the  natural  level. 

What  we  call  racial  characteristics  are  acquired.    The  complicated 


process  which  Tarde  treats  under  "Laws  of  Imitation*'  plays  a  large 
role  in  the  transmission  of  those  habits,  customs,  modes  of  thinking 
which  descend  from  generation  to  generation  until  they  come  to  be 
regarded  as  part  and  parcel  of  a  nation's  life.  "Nations  are  often 
distinguished,"  says  Jebb,  "by  broadly  marked  tendencies  or  apti- 
tudes traceable  through  every  period  of  their  history.  These  may 
properly  be  called  national  characteristics.  Originating  partly,  per- 
haps, in  race,  they  may  yet  cease  to  be  in  themselves  proofs  of  a 
perpetual  strain  of  blood  since  they  attach  themselves  to  a  certain 
type  of  civilization ;  but  the  persistency  of  such  broad  traits  vouches 
at  least  for  a  continuous  tradition  of  those  institutions  and  usages, 
those  ways  of  thinking  and  feeling  which  give  essential  unity  to  an 
originally  composite  nationality."^ 

This  distinction  between  physical  and  social  heredity  finds  an  apt 
illustration  in  the  Greek  people.  The  physical  descent  of  the  mod- 
ern Greeks  has  been  a  subject  of  controversy.  Are  the  Greeks  of 
to-day  flesh  and  blood  kin  of  the  Greeks  of  classic  times?  About 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  Fallmerayer  of  Munich  in  his  "His- 
tory of  the  Morea  during  the  Middle  Ages"  took  the  position  that 
the  Slavs  had  so  completely  submerged  the  ancient  Greeks  that  the 
Hellenic  blood  has  entirely  disappeared.®  The  Greeks,  according  to 
his  theory,  are  "Byzantinized  Slavs."  Fallmerayer's  extreme  view 
was  modified  by  the  investigations  of  Karl  Hopf.  It  still  finds  an 
advocate  in  Gustav  LeBon.  "The  modern  Greeks,"  he  says,  "have 
no  relation  with  the  ancient  Greeks.  Anthropology  has  shown  that 
they  are  brachycephalous  Slavs.  The  ancient  Greeks  were  dolicho- 
cephalic."® 

Dr.  Woodruff  contends  that  the  modern  Greeks  are  not  Aryan. 
He  traces  Greek  civilization  to  a  savage,  unlettered,  blond  race  who 
conquered  an  earlier  Semitic  type,  forcing  their  language  on  the 
present  people.  Making  their  way  into  Greece  about  2000  B.  C, 
they  became  the  upper  ruling  class— the  soldiers,  judges,  legislators, 
writers,  poets,  philosophers.  They  fell  victims  to  the  climate  and 
degenerated.  "It  is  quite  likely  that  by  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian Era,  few  Homeric  Greeks  were  left,  if  any.  But  the  real  Greek, 
the  brunette  Semite  who  was  the  peasant,  farmer,  artisan,  fisher, 
trader,  slave— the  low  class— survived,  and  his  descendants  are  the 
modem  Greeks,  still  talking  the  same  language  forced  upon  them 


three  or  four  thousand  years  ago,  but  speaking  it  so  badly  as  to  con- 
stitute another  tongue."^^ 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  modern  Greeks  represent  very 
great  mixture  of  blood.  The  precise  extent  of  admixture  has  been 
a  subject  of  warm  discussion  and  the  opinions  of  scholars  show  a 
wide  range  of  difference.  Keane  believes  that  the  Hellenic  race  has 
almost  perished  on  the  mainland.^^  Deniker  says  that  the  physical 
type  is  diversified  among  the  Greeks  and  requires  further  study .^^ 
Professor  Sloane  thinks  the  proportion  of  Greek  descent  in  Greece 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  Anglo-Saxon  descent  in  America.^^  Some 
writers  speak  in  a  vague  way  of  the  survival  of  an  Hellenic  strain 
in  the  modern  Greeks,  but  on  careful  analysis  they  seem  to  have  in 
mind  the  social  rather  than  the  physical  heredity,  as  when  Jebb  tells 
us  that  by  reason  of  their  superior  social  civilization,  the  Greeks 
were  able  to  absorb  the  Slavs,^*  or  when  Wheeler  says  that  "the 
Greek  blood,  the  Greek  usages,  the  Greek  habit  of  mind,  like  the 
Greek  tongue,  have  entirely  predominated."^^ 

These  writers  have  confused  physical  and  social  heredity.  The 
two  are  not  correlated.  The  persistence  of  the  Greek  language,  tra- 
ditions and  institutions  does  not  establish  the  survival  of  Greek 
blood. 

In  this  connection,  the  findings  of  Anthropology  as  summed  up  by 
Professor  Ripley  are  interesting:  "The  cephalic  index  of  modern 
living  Greeks  ranges  with  great  constancy  about  81.  This  is  an 
appreciably  broader  head  than  in  the  case  of  the  ancients.  In  Thes- 
saly  and  Attica,  the  dolicocephalic  type  persists.  In  Epirus  they  are 
broad  headed.  The  Peloponnese  has  best  preserved  the  dolicocepha- 
lic. Thessaly  is  also  close  to  the  classic  type.  The  anthropological 
measurements  show  heterogeneity."*^ 

Hogarth  sees  in  the  Greek  of  to-day  a  surviving  stream  of  old 
Hellenic  blood  mixed  with  the  blood  of  Slavs  and  Tosks,  of  Turks, 
Italians  and  Vlachs,  but  "the  Hellenic  type  of  civilization  has  assim- 
ilated by  its  superiority  all  others  and  given  to  Slav  and  Tosk,  to 
Vlach  and  half-breed,  Italian  and  Turk,  community  of  tradition  and 
hope,  language  and  creed  and  one  character  as  a  nation."**^ 

Thus,  while  the  physical  heredity  of  the  Greeks  has  undergone 
great  modification,  the  social  heredity  stands  out  clear  and  distinct. 
"Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  physical  descent,"  remarks  Professor 

8 


Fairchild,  "there  can  be  no  doubt  that  spiritually  the  modern  Greeks 
are  the  direct  inheritors  of  the  ancient.  A  familiarity  with  the 
modern  people  brings  countless  illustrations  of  similarity  of  thought 
and  character  between  the  old  and  the  new  and  clarifies  many  a  dim 
passage  in  ancient  history."*® 

The  purpose  of  this  thesis  is  to  seek  illustration  of  social  heredity 
by  tracing  the  persistence  of  certain  marked  traits  and  institutions 
through  classic  and  modem  Greek  life.  The  physical  heredity  does 
not  concern  us.  By  social  heredity  the  modern  Greek  has  entered 
into  the  spirit  of  the  ancient  life,  reflecting  its  most  characteristic 
features  of  thought  and  temper  and  reproducing  in  their  ensemble 
those  traits  of  character  that  were  distinguishing  marks  of  the 
ancient  Hellenes.  Throughout  the  long,  varied  history  of  Greece  the 
sway  of  social  heredity  has  been  clearly  defined,  tending  ever  to 
produce  the  same  mental  attitude  in  ancient  and  in  modern,  in  pagan 
and  in  Christian  times. 

There  persists  uninterruptedly  through  Greek  history  a  common 
type  of  mind,  perpetuating  and  reproducing,  as  Jebb  says,  "the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  stamp  of  Hellenic  society  in  a  national  character 
of  marked  distinction."*^  This  is  in  contrast  to  Italy,  for  while 
Roman  law  survives,  the  Roman  type  of  character  and  mind  has 
disappeared.  The  Greek  type  persists  so  little  changed,  that  when 
Mahaffy  published  his  presentations  of  ancient  Greek  character 
based  on  studies  of  classic  literature,  people  at  Athens  were  so 
struck  with  the  resemblance  of  the  old  Greeks  to  the  present  inhabi- 
tants that  they  concluded  at  once  that  he  must  have  visited  Greece 
and  drawn  his  pictures  of  the  classical  people  from  the  Greeks  of 

to-day.2o 

In  this  treatment  there  will  be  presented,  first,  a  survey  of  the 
social  life  of  ancient  Greece ;  second,  a  comparison  between  ancient 
and  modern  Greek  life  with  a  view  to  tracing  the  common  factors ; 
third,  a  brief  study  of  the  Greeks  in  America,  noting  the  persistence, 
even  here,  of  certain  striking  traits. 


PART  I. 

A  survey  of  ancient  Greek  life  reveals  a  people  among  whom  the 
play  of  centrifugal  forces  was  always  so  pronounced  as  to  prevent 
the  realization  of  any  kind  of  national  unity.  The  Greeks  are  often 
spoken  of  as  a  race  rather  than  a  nation.  Like  Germany  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  and  Italy  at  the  Renaissance,  Greece  was 
divided  into  multitudinous,  independent  city  states,  each  of  which 
was  a  focus  of  social,  political  and  intellectual  life. 

The  centrifugal  factors  in  Greek  life  may  be  classified  under 
three  heads : 

I.    The  passion  for  local  autonomy. 
II.     The  excessive  individualism  of  Greek  character. 
III.     The  enormous  energy  of  the  people,  ever  seeking  outlet  in 
colonization,  war  and  commerce. 

The  earliest  political  unit  of  Greece  was  the  city  state,  which  was 
common  to  both  Greek  and  Latin.  It  was  the  outgrowth  of  the 
primitive  village  community  which  rested  on  ties  of  kin,  govern- 
ment, community  of  land,  and  worship,  but  the  Greek  and  Latin 
city  states  followed  divergent  lines  of  development  in  accord  with 
the  genius  of  each  people.  Rome  began  its  true  existence  as  a  city 
state,  but  the  genius  of  the  Latins  for  cohesion  was  the  guiding 
spirit  of  its  advance.^^  "The  Latin  tribes,"  says  Laurie,  "estab- 
lished themselves  on  the  hills  about  the  Tiber,  developing  the  civic 
life  of  Latin  communities.  They  formed  a  union,  gradually  ac- 
quired the  hegemony  of  the  Latin  race,  extended  their  dominion  to 
the  Volsci  on  the  south,  the  Sabellians  on  the  east,  and  the  Etrus- 
cans on  the  north. "^^  The  Latin  genius  was  unifying  and  organiz- 
ing. The  Latin  mind  took  a  world  view.  The  Roman  poet,  ex- 
pressing the  destiny  of  his  people,  said:  "Let  others  celebrate  the 
arts  and  humanities  and  mould  the  bronze  info  breathing  shape. 
Others  will  be  more  eloquent.  Others  will  celebrate  grander  tri- 
umphs of  chisel  and  brush.    Let  others  describe  the  circling  move- 

10 


ments  of  the  heavens  and  tell  the  rising  of  the  stars.  Thy  work,  oh 
Roman,  is  to  rule  the  nations,  to  subdue  the  proud,  to  put  down  the 
rebellious,  to  stretch  the  arm  of  power  over  the  world.^^s  World 
conquest  was  the  Roman  ideal. 

In  Greece,  local  autonomy  was  the  dominant  conception.  Grote 
says :  "There  is  a  want  of  grouping  and  unity  in  the  early  period, 
and  this  is  to  a  degree  a  characteristic  inseparable  from  the  history 
of  Greece  from  its  beginning  to  its  end.  .  .  .  Nothing  short  of 
force  will  efface  in  the  mind  of  the  free  Greek  the  idea  of  his  city 
as  an  autonomous  and  separate  organization.  The  city  is  a  unit, 
the  highest  of  all  political  units,  not  admitting  of  consolidation  with 
others  to  the  sacrifice  of  its  own  separate  and  individual  mark.  Such 
is  the  character  of  the  race  both  in  primitive  country  and  in  colonial 
settlements,  in  their  early  and  late  history,  splitting  by  natural  frac- 
tures into  a  multitude  of  self-administering  cities.  Each  city  follows 
its  own  thread  of  existence  in  no  partnership  nor  common  purpose 
with  the  rest.^24 

Political  disunion  was  a  settled  maxim  of  the  Hellenic  mind. 
"The  only  unity  which  Greece  ever  achieved  was  the  melancholy 
unity  of  subjection  under  all-conquering  Rome.^^s  The  Greek  never 
learned  to  sacrifice  narrow  civic  interests  to  the  large  idea  of  Hel- 
lenic nationality. 

When  Plato  undertook  the  description  of  the  ideal  state  he  drew 
the  picture  of  a  city  small,  well  walled  to  keep  out  foreigners,  inde- 
pendent, self-sufficing.26  Aristotle  conceived  the  city  state  as  the 
highest  possible  form  of  social  union.^"^  The  ideal  state  is  wholly 
able  to  maintain  its  own  character  as  a  state  by  itself  and  for  itself. 
Both  writers  are  at  one  in  their  dislike  of  large  political  unions. 

One  reason  why  the  Athenian  Empire  excited  such  deep  hostility 
is  found  in  the  natural  repugnance  of  the  Greek  mind  to  an  imperial 
organization  which  violated  local  autonomy.  In  its  overthrow  its 
enemies  regarded  themselves  as  defenders  of  the  true  doctrine  of 

the  city  state. 

From  earliest  times  Greece  offered  an  inviting  soil  for  political 
experimentation  and  became  the  cradle  of  political  science  because 
the  city  states  afforded  ample  field  in  which  every  conceivable  ex- 
periment might  be  tried.  Politics  ran  the  whole  gamut  of  timocracy, 
oligarchy,  democracy,  tyranny. 

11 


li 


In  Athens  politics  was  regarded  as  the  business  of  every  man. 
Thucydides  puts  these  words  on  the  Hps  of  Pericles :  "The  admin- 
istration is  in  the  hands  of  the  many  and  not  of  a  few.  An  Athenian 
citizen  does  not  neglect  the  state  because  he  takes  care  of  his  own 
household.  Even  those  of  us  who  are  engaged  in  business  have  a 
very  fair  idea  of  politics.  We  alone  regard  a  man  who  takes  no 
interest  in  public  affairs  not  as  a  harmless  but  as  a  useless  char- 
acter."28 

There  is  a  passage  in  Plato  where  the  writer  constructs  a  philoso- 
phy of  history  and  interprets  Greek  life  in  the  light  of  the  inherent 
tendencies  of  human  nature.^^  He  sees  in  the  constitution  of  society 
an  expression  of  psychological  law.  The  character  of  the  citizens  is 
impressed  on  the  political  structure.  Accepting  this  thesis,  we  see 
in  the  political  disunity  of  Greece  a  reflection  of  the  passion  for 
individual  liberty  which  characterized  the  Hellenic  mind.  Among 
the  states  we  find  a  passion  for  local  autonomy.  Among  individuals 
we  find  a  passion  for  personal  freedom  manifesting  itself  in  restive- 
ness  under  authority,  jealousy,  rivalry,  factiousness,  self-assertive - 


ness. 


Ramsay  speaks  of  a  certain  atmosphere  of  liberty  about  a  Greek 
city.  "The  unfettered  development  of  the  individual  was  the  aim  of 
Hellenism.  The  cities  in  which  the  Hellenic  ideal  was  best  realized 
were  those  in  which  freest  play  was  given  to  the  individual  to  live 
his  own  life  according  to  his  own  judgment.  No  other  ancient  peo- 
ple aimed  so  steadfastly  as  the  Greeks  at  freedom.  Order,  and  even 
the  safety  of  the  state,  were  sometimes  jeopardized  in  the  pursuit  of 
individual  freedom  which  tended  to  degenerate  into  caprice  and 
H  cense.  "^^ 

On  its  positive  side,  this  passion  for  individual  liberty  found  its 
highest  expression  in  the  Athenian  democracy.  Bluntschli  points 
out  that  even  the  old  monarchies  and  aristocracies  of  Greece  pos- 
sessed a  kind  of  democracy  which  distinguished  them  from  modern 
monarchy  or  from  Roman  aristocracy.^* 

Athens  solved  the  problem  of  the  free  play  to  individual  talent. 
She  fostered  and  drew  out  the  best  political  ideals  of  the  Greek 
mind.  Here  democracy  found  its  most  logical  expression.  In  no 
other  state  was  the  rule  of  the  people  so  extensive. 

The  "Ecclesia,"  with  its  subordinate  administrative  committee, 

12 


"the  Boule,"  was  the  visible  representative  of  the  many-headed 
demos.  Its  power  embraced  the  whole  life  of  the  state.  It  ap- 
pointed embassies,  received  envoys,  decided  peace  or  war,  chose 
generals,  conducted  military  operations,  levied  taxes. 

The  people  undertook  the  whole  work  of  government.  In  every 
matter  of  political  Ufe,  peace,  war,  treaties,  army,  navy,  finance, 
religion,  the  voice  of  the  people  was  supreme  and  final.^^ 

It  was  the  indiYidu^Jism  of  Greek  character  that  gave  the  Sophist 
appeal  fruitful  soil  among  the  young  men  of  Greece.  Stoicism  made 
headway  at  Rome  because  it  had  so  much  real  affinity  with  the  moral 
consciousness  of  the  Roman.  It  struck  a  note  of  sternness  that  was 
consonant  with  Roman  genius.  The  Sophist  appealed  forcefully  to 
the  Greek  mind.  He  appeared  as  an  up-to-date  man,  the  distributor 
of  culture.  He  frequented  the  centers  of  population  as  a  profes- 
sional teacher.  He  developed  rhetoric  as  the  expression  of  the 
aesthetic  and  as  the  great  art  of  carrying  one's  point.  Each  man  has 
the  right  to  carry  his  point.  In  the  endeavor  to  justify  himself  the 
Sophist  reached  a  philosophy  of  radical  egoism.  The  man  is  the 
measure  of  things.  "For  the  young  man  of  good  birth  who  had  to 
keep  up  the  role  of  a  gentleman,  the  natural,  almost  only,  career  to 
look  forward  to  was  connected  with  the  political  life  of  his  city,  and 
the  indispensable  quality  to  success  was  skill  in  carrying  his  audience 
with  him,  which  tlie  Sophist  professed  to  teach.  The  goal  of  the 
politician  was  not  so  much  truth  as  victory."^-'*  The  widespread 
pursuit  of  politics  and  the  pronounced  individualism  of  the  Greek 
caused  the  Sophist  program  to  obtain  a  great  vogue  and  it  became  a 
factor  in  the  downfall  of  Greece. 

Professor  Binder  makes  a  people's  relation  to  the  sea  the  index  to 
its  type  of  civilization.  The  sea  is  man's  educator  toward  culture. 
From  its  earliest  stages  Hellenic  civilization  reflected  the  bold, 
venturesome  activity  of  a  sea-faring  race.  "The  national  epic  of 
Greece,"  says  one  writer,  "is  a  story  of  maritime  adventure.  Her 
great  cities  are  all  on  the  sea.  Greek  civilization  and  culture  are 
inextricably  interwoven  with  cruise  and  adventure."^^  Energy,  en- 
terprise, alertness,  are  paramount,  in  contrast  to  the  quiet,  passive 
river  type.  The  voices  of  mountains  and  sea,  so  impressive  in  the 
natural  environment  of  Greece,  found  response  in  the  character  of 

n 


Ill 


I 


the  people  ever  restlessly  seeking  an  outlet  for  their  surplus  energy 
in  colonization,  warfare  or  commerce. 

Colonization  was  a  natural  consequence  of  the  growth  of  a  people 
confined  within  a  somewhat  restricted  territory.  It  found  a  stimulus 
in  civil  dissensions,  frequent  political  changes  and  commercial  enter- 
prise. 

The  year  750  B.  C.  marks  the  beginning  of  an  era  of  colonization 
which  continued  through  two  centuries.  The  colony  reflected  in 
most  instances  the  ideals  of  the  home  city,  but  it  was  always  politi- 
cally independent.  Athens  established  colonies  on  the  Asiatic  shore, 
where  the  transplanting  of  Greek  life  to  a  new  environment  stimu- 
lated intellectual  activity.  Philosophy  took  its  rise  in  Miletus. 
Megara  founded  Byzantium  which  became  mighty  Constantinople. 
Chalcis  established  the  commercial  colony  of  Cumae.  Syracuse  was 
Corinth's  most  famous  colony.  Achaeans  from  the  northern  Pelo- 
ponnese  established  Sybaris  and  Crotona.  In  600  B.  C.  hardy  mari- 
ners from  Phocaea  in  Asia  Minor  founded  Massilia,  the  modern 
Marseilles,  a  narrow  fringe  of  Hellenic  civilization  on  the  border  of 
benighted  Gaul.  A  network  of  colonies  spread  over  the  whole  Medi- 
terranean region  from  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  to  Italy  and  Sicily, 
carrying  everywhere  the  seed  of  Hellenic  culture. 

The  military  ideal  is  not  commonly  associated  with  the  Greeks, 
although  war  played  a  big  role  in  their  history.  "In  Greece,"  says 
Ruskin,  "there  is  no  soldier  caste.  Every  citizen  was  necessarily  a 
soldier."^^  The  Greek  engaged  in  warfare  under  the  necessity  of  a 
situation,  taking  the  battlefield  under  the  stimulus  of  powerful  patri- 
otism, as  in  the  defense  of  Hellas  against  Persia  or  the  civil  warfare 
between  Sparta  and  Athens.  World  conquest  was  foreign  to  the 
Hellenic  temper  and  first  appears  as  an  ideal  with  the  advent  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  The  Greeks  were  not  fond  of  long  continued 
military  service.  The  lonians  were  so  little  given  to  war  that  they 
readily  accepted  the  Lydian  yoke,  preferring  servitude  to  the 
drudgery,  fatigue  and  hardship  of  campaign.^® 

Professor  Wheeler  says :  "The  ancient  Greeks  were  by  no  means 
all  fond  of  war  nor  good  fighting  men.  The  Spartans  were  rugged 
fighters  and  susceptible  of  superior  discipline.  The  stolid,  realistic 
Boeotian  fitted  well  into  Epaminondas's  solid  phalanxes.  The  Arca- 
dians and  Achaeans  were  famous  professional  fighters  and  from 

14 


^ 
M 


the  fourth  century  B.  C.  furnished  the  largest  contingents  of  mer- 
cenaries. But  the  Athenians  greatly  preferred  to  have  their  fighting 
done  for  them,  and  after  the  fifth  century  one  never  hears  of  an 
Athenian  army  made  up  exclusively  of  Athenians."^^ 

Gulick  says  that  military  discipline  was  not  rigid  among  the 
Athenians.  "The  army  was  on  a  democratic  basis.  The  general 
was  required  to  render  an  account  of  his  generalship  to  his  soldiers. 
The  spectacle  of  an  undisciplined  force  was  common  in  Greek  miU- 
tary  history.  Rigorous  officers  like  the  Spartan  Clearchus  were 
generally  hated. "^® 

It  was  in  commerce  rather  than  warfare  that  the  Greek  found  his 
most  congenial  occupation.  In  this  he  gradually  supplanted  the 
Phoenician  pioneers,  adopting  the  selfsame  policy  of  monopoly  and 
exclusion  of  rivals.  Many  of  the  Greek  colonies  were  commercial 
in  origin. 

The  Greek  sometimes  fell  under  the  opprobrium  that  often  at- 
taches to  commercial  people  who  are  peculiarly  exposed  to  the 
\f  charge  of  dishonesty.  Perhaps  their  very  success  invites  the  accusa- 
tion. The  Phoenicians  were  regarded  in  antiquity  as  cheats  and 
liars.  Letourneau  says:  "Primitive  society  esteemed  the  merchant 
slightly  and  associated  him  with  greed  and  monopoly."^^  Virgil 
gives  the  Greeks  a  reputation  for  duplicity  in  his  famous  passage, 
"Timeo  Danaos  et  dona  ferentes,"^^  and  Juvenal  does  not  veil  his 
disgust  at  the  increasing  number  of  Greeks  in  Rome  and  the  gradual 
ascendancy  of  the  Greek  language  and  customs.  He  represents  them  -^ 
as  effeminate,  quick  witted,  desperately  impudent,  fluent  of  speech.*^  ^ 

We  must  receive  with  caution  the  impression  of  a  Roman  satirist. 
Jebb  points  out  that  the  Greeks  described  by  Juvenal  were  Asiatic 
in  type,  "Syrus  in  Tiberim  defluxit  Orontes,"  and  a  distinction  must 
be  drawn  between  the  Greeks  of  Hellas  and  those  of  Asia.^^  The 
latter  were  people  of  very  mixed  blood  in  whom  the  quick  Greek 
intelligence  passed  over  into  versatility  and  cunning.  They  were  not 
truly  representative  of  Hellenic  ideals. 

That  there  was  a  great  deal  of  dishonesty  in  the  very  best  days  of 
Athens  admits  of  no  question.  Greece  had  her  problems  of  "graft" 
and  municipal  corruption.  There  is  a  melancholy  record  of  leaders 
who  were  strong  on  the  battlefield  but  could  not  resist  the  subtle 
temptation  of  gold.    The  love  of  money  proved  a  root  of  evil  in 

15 


every  period  of  Greek  history.  Pausanias,  Miltiades,  Themistocles, 
Demosthenes,  are  all  under  a  cloud.  Graft  at  Athens  was  so  much 
a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  Spartan  twitted  Athenian  on 
the  cleverness  with  which  the  Athenian  magistrates  were  wont  to 
loot  the  public  treasury .^^  Mutual  recrimination  was  the  order  of 
the  day.  Any  public  man  might  at  any  time  come  under  suspicion. 
Even  Pericles  did  not  escape  charges,  and  the  far-seeing  Pheidias, 
anticipating  possible  accusations,  arranged  the  gold  in  Athena's 
statue  in  such  a  way  that  it  could  be  detached  and  weighed. 

But  when  all  these  things  are  taken  into  account,  I  still  hesitate 
to  brand  the  Greeks  as  sinners  above  all  others.  In  view  of  our 
experience  in  the  government  of  American  cities,  I  believe  a  careful 
comparison  might  show  that  Greek  conditions,  if  no  better,  were 
certainly  no  worse  than  our  own. 

Into  the  field  of  Greek  life  where  the  play  of  centrifugal  forces 
was  so  marked  there  entered  three  great  unifying  factors.    They 

are: 

I.    The  idea  of  a  common  nationality. 
II.    A  common  language. 

III.    The  influence  of  religion  and  games. 

All  Greeks  conceived  themselves  the  descendants  of  Hellen,  son 
of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha.  This  common  descent  was  a  fundamental 
article  of  popular  faith.  They  moved  and  acted  under  its  influence. 
As  early  as  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  we  find  increasing  conviction  of 
the  superiority  of  the  Greek  to  the  foreigner.  There  was  a  distinct 
line  of  cleavage  between  Greek  and  barbarian.  Strangers  and  for- 
eigners were  barred  from  the  religious  festivals.  Participation  in 
the  games  was  open  only  to  men  of  Hellenic  blood.  The  Greek  was 
exclusive.  Racial  pride  was  very  intense.  Tarde  says:  "Of 
all  nations  conquered  by  Rome,  none  was  more  allied  to  her  through 
blood  than  the  populations  of  Greek  origin.  Yet  these  were 
precisely  the  communities  where  her  language  failed  to  spread  and 
her  culture  and  genius  failed  to  be  assimilated,  because  they  retained 
their  fierce  pride— their  indelible  feeling  of  superiority."*^ 

The  language  spoken  by  the  scattered  sons  of  Hellas  was  itself  a 
bond  of  union.  Like  the  rugged  mountain  country,  it  was  broken 
into  numerous  dialects.  It  attained  great  perfection  as  a  vehicle  of 
expression.    Its  vocabulary,  rich  in  words  to  describe  the  most  deli- 

16 


cate  shadings  of  meaning,  lent  itself  in  a  peculiar  way  to  philosophy 
and  later  to  Christian  theology.  It  was  a  revelation  of  the  mental 
alertness  of  the  people.  Professor  Binder  finds  in  language  an  index 
of  civilization.  A  people  intellectually  alert  seeks  clearness  of  ex- 
pression and  artistic  form. 

There   was    a   many-sidedness    to    the    culture    of    the    Greeks. 
Nothing   was   beyond   the   range   of    their   interest.      They   were 
pioneers  in  philosophy,  religion,  ethics,  politics.     They  produced 
the    earliest    literature    of    Europe,    original    in    conception    and 
artistic  in  form.    They  were  distinguished  for  vivid  mental  power. 
"The  opening  up  of  many  widely  different  branches  of  research 
during  the  nineteenth  century,"  says  Benjamin  Kidd,  "has  brought 
a  crowd  of  workers  in  various  departments  into  close  contact  with 
the  intellectual  Ufe  of  the  Greeks.     The  unanimity  of  testimony 
which  comes   from  these  representatives  of   different  spheres  of 
thought  as  to  the  high  average  standard  of  intellectual  development 
reached  by  this  remarkable  people  is  very  striking.     It  is  not  only 
that  the  mental  calibre  of  isolated  minds  like  Socrates,  Aristotle, 
Plato  or  Phidias  appears  so  great  when  carefully  measured  and  the 
state  of  knowledge  and  the  circumstances  of  the  time  are  taken  into 
account.     It  is  rather  that  the  mental  average  of  the  whole  of  the 
people  should  have  been  so  unmistakably  high.     In  both  respects 
the  Greeks  seem  to  have  surpassed  us."*^ 

Literature  and  art  reached  a  climax  in  the  Periclean  Age.  The 
intellectual  distinction  of  Athens  in  the  fifth  century  is  an  extra- 
ordinary phenomenon.  Such  brilliancy  was  never  again  seen  until 
the  Renaissance.  Athens  was  the  home  of  the  best  thought  of  the 
age— the  school  of  Greece.  The  ideals  of  Pericles  which  found 
classic  expression  in  Thucydides  were  realized  in  democracy,  indi- 
vidual  versatility,  beauty  and  wisdom.  The  Hellenic  spirit  ex- 
pressed itself  in  political  and  social  conditions  that  favored  indi- 
vidual culture,  intellectual  activity  and  personal  ambition.  National 
enthusiasm  and  thorough-going  democracy  combined  to  create  an 
atmosphere  favorable  to  the  highest  literary  and  artistic  genius. 
Some  writers  lay  stress  on  slave  labor  as  a  factor  in  the  situation. 
Botsford  regards  slavery  as  an  essential  condition  of  Athenian 
democracy  because  it  gave  leisure  for  participation  in  public  life.*« 
Professor  Ferguson  minimizes  its  importance  and  characterizes 

if 


the  current  view  as  a  "well  nurtured  delusion."  He  thinks  the  leisure 
of  Athens  has  been  greatly  overestimated.  One-third  of  the  citizens 
had  to  earn  a  living  by  selling  their  labor.  The  majority  of  farmers 
had  to  till  the  land  with  their  own  hands.  Slavery  was  simply  one 
form  of  capital  and  there  was  in  Athens  no  leisure  class  such  as 
historians  often  picture.*' 

Dr.  Woodruff  finds  an  explanation  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  Peric- 
lean  era  in  the  decadence  of  the  Greeks  which  he  believes  was 
already  well  advanced  in  the  fifth  century.  The  very  statuary  copies 
the  stigmata  of  degeneration  in  a  dying  race.  The  great  achieve- 
ments were  those  of  neurotics.  Socrates,  Antisthenes  and  Diogenes 
were  degenerate  though  men  of  genius.*^ 

Jones  places  the  date  of  Hellenic  decline  in  the  fourth  century. 
"By  300  B.  C.  the  Greeks  lost  much  of  their  manly  vigor  and  intel- 
lectual strength. '  He  finds  the  cause  in  malaria,  which  became  en- 
demic in  Greece  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  fifth  century.  He 
notes  the  frequent  occurrence  of  7ry/y£T<J9  in  literature  after  425 
B.  €.,  the  very  year  when  the  Athenians  were  engaged  in  campaigns 
at  Sphacteria,  one  of  the  worst  malaria  centers  of  the  Mediterra- 


49 


nean. 

Can  there  be  any  connection  between  the  prevalence  of  malaria 
in  the  fourth  century  and  the  unprecedented  importance  of  the  sanc- 
tuary of  Asklepios  at  Epidaurus  which  rose  into  prominence  at  that 

very  time? 

If  Woodruff  attributes  Athenian  greatness  to  decadence,  Kaines 
Smith,  on  the  other  hand,  finds  the  source  of  its  achievements  in  its 
vigor,  patriotism  and  high  idealism.  He  sees  an  unconscious  har- 
mony between  the  art  and  history  of  any  period.  "The  artist  is 
bound  to  be  the  unconscious  interpreter  of  the  mental,  moral  and 
social  atmosphere  in  which  he  lives.  Not  only  does  he  give  to  the 
nation  what  it  wants,  he  is  of  the  nation  and  he  wants  the  same 
things  himself  for  the  same  reason."^^ 

Such  masterpieces  as  Myron's  "Discobolus"  and  "Marsyas"  or  the 
statue  of  Victory  by  Paionios  were  called  into  being  by  the  emotions 
that  filled  the  heart  of  Athens  in  the  first  flush  of  successful  encoun- 
ter with  Persia.  The  genius  of  Pheidias  embodied  in  gold,  ivory 
and  marble  the  splendid  faith  and  unselfish  patriotism  of  the  Athe- 
nian people.     The  combination  of  restraint  and  exuberance  in  his 

18 


master  productions  is  a  reflection  of  the  nation's  character. 

Greek  religion  also  gave  unity.  "In  the  early  city  state,"  says 
Warde  Fowler,  "the  unifying  power  of  religion  was  itself  so  strong 
and  irresistible  as  to  be  almost  beyond  the  comprehension  of  a  mod- 
ern unfamiliar  with  the  life  of  the  ancient  world."^^ 

Greek  religion  was  social-poUtical.  Church  and  state  were  inti- 
mately allied.  "Service  of  the  gods,"  says  Kaines  Smith,  "meant  to 
the  Greek,  service  of  the  state,  of  the  city  in  which  stood  the  sacred 
places  that  it  was  his  duty  as  a  good  servant  of  tiie  gods  to  defend. 
Religion  and  citizenship  were  to  this  extent  identical."^^ 

Famell  characterizes  Greek  religion  as  "unique  perhaps  in  the 
world  for  its  almost  naively  intimate  association  with  the  whole 
political  and  social  life  of  the  people.  The  religious  atmosphere  is 
all-pervading.  Law  courts,  market  places,  council  chambers,  town 
hall,  are  consecrated  places  under  the  charge  of  certain  deities. 
Relieion  is  absorbed  in  politics,  especially  at  Athens,  where  occa- 
sionally  even  a  partisan  color  is  given  to  it. 

There  was  a  full  recognition  of  the  gods  in  the  great  incidents  of 
domestic  life,  birth,  marriage,  death.  There  was  a  civic  recognition 
of  the  gods  in  religious  festivals,  numerous  and  stately. 

The  sacerdotal  element  was  in  abeyance.  There  was  no  central- 
ized, organized  priesthood.  Sacerdotalism  was  aUen  to  the  Hellenic 
mind.  "While  religion  was  inwrought  into  the  fabric  of  the  state," 
says  Farnell,  "it  took  a  subordinate  place,  ministrant  rather  than 
master.    The  priest  was  a  citizen,  the  servant,  not  the  despot,  of  the 

state. "^^ 

'The  tendency  of  the  Greek,"  says  Reinach,  "was  to  subordinate 
priest  to  magistrate.  The  priests  never  constituted  a  clergy  like 
those  of  Persia,  India  and  Gaul."^^ 

Religion  reflects  the  humanity  of  the  civil  life.  Priests  were 
elected  and  might  be  changed  at  intervals.  "The  priest's  duty," 
says  Laurie,  "seems  to  have  been  chiefly  that  of  a  caretaker  and  a 
regulator  in  the  manner  of  offering  sacrifices  on  special  occasions."^^ 
Religious  toleration  was  a  feature  of  Greek  history  which  is  marked 
by  the  absence  of  religious  persecution. 

The  cult  of  Apollo  was  the  first  bond  of  union  between  Hellenic 
cities.  From  the  eighth  century  onward  the  Delphic  oracle  is  the 
most  potent  Pan-Hellenic  force  in  Greek  religious  institutions.  Far- 

19 


nell  compares  its  influence  to  that  of  the  mediaeval  papacy.  "It  bore 
the  same  part  in  relation  to  Greek  cities  that  the  mediaeval  papacy 
played  in  relation  to  the  states  of  Christendom.  But  ecclesiastical 
domination  was  rendered  impossible  in  Greece  partly  by  absence  of 
genius  at  Delphi  but  mainly  by  the  stubborn  independence  and  cen- 
trifugal instincts  of  the  Greek  Tr^JAty.''^^ 

Closely  connected  with  religion  were  the  national  games  that 
played  a  big  part  in  unifying  the  people.  Religious  in  origin,  they 
became  a  unique  feature  of  Greek  life.  There  is  nothing  parallel  in 
any  other  nation.  The  Olympic  games  go  back  to  remote  antiquity. 
Later  in  their  development  were  the  Pythian,  Nemean  and  Isthmian. 
The  fondest  ambition  of  every  Greek  was  to  appear  as  victor  before 
assembled  Hellas.  These  games  afforded  communication  between 
scattered  communities.  They  stimulated  traffic.  Hither  the  poet 
came  to  present  his  masterpiece  and  here  the  musician  found  an 
opportunity  to  show  his  skill.  Wrestling,  boxing,  rimning,  javelin 
throwing,  chariot  racing,  found  place  on  the  program. 

In  393  A.  D.  the  Olympic  games  had  been  held  for  the  last  time. 
Nothing  corresponding  to  them  has  since  appeared  in  Greek  life. 
The  revival  of  the  Olympic  games  in  1896,  when  the  contests  took 
place  at  Athens  and  were  hailed  with  enthusiasm  by  Greeks,  repre- 
sents something  entirely  different  from  the  ancient  institution.  The 
Marathon  race  was  won  by  a  Greek  youth,  but  among  the  Greeks 
to-day  athletics  hold  no  important  place.  Gymnastics  only  recently 
became  a  part  of  Greek  education.*^*  Games  do  not  play  the  same 
part  in  university  life  at  Athens  as  at  Oxford,  and  outdoor  sports 
do  not  flourish  in  Greece.  "Foot-ball  and  cricket,"  says  the  author 
of  "Greece  of  the  Hellenes,"  "present  no  attraction  to  the  youth  of 
Greece,  and  the  latter  game  introduced  into  Corfu  during  British 
occupation  has  gradually  died  out  even  there."^^ 

The  question  naturally  suggests  itself,  why  did  the  Greeks  fail  to 
develop  a  larger  social  consciousness, — why  was  the  social  mind 
always  so  closely  limited  by  the  horizon  of  the  city  state  ?  This  ap- 
pears the  more  strange  because  the  ideal  elements  were  present  in 
language,  institutions,  religion  and  kinship,  but  these  ideal  factors 
never  proved  sufficiently  powerful  to  effect  political  solidarity. 
Ellwood  says:  "The  Greeks,  the  most  intellectual  people  of  an- 
tiquity, had  little  or  no  practical  moral  genius,  and  their  social  life 

20 


was  characterized  by  instability,  disharmony,  and  at  length  by  cor- 
ruption and  degeneracy."^ 

Benjamin  Kidd  thinks  that  intellectual  brilliancy  does  not  neces- 
sarily make  for  social  efficiency.  He  cites  the  French  as  an  illustra- 
tion In  their  light,  agile,  athletic  grasp  of  principles  and  ideas  they 
bear  striking  similarity  to  the  Greeks.  In  the  intellectual  order  they 
are  immeasurably  superior  to  the  Teutons,  but  in  social  efficiency 
they  are  constantly  outstripped  by  their  less  brilliant  neighbors.«i 

However  we  may  incline  to  stress  or  to  discount  the  intellectual 
factors,  it  seems  to  me  a  deeper  reason  for  the  failure  of  Greece  to 
rise  high  in  the  scale  of  social  efficiency  is  to  be  found  in  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  country  itself.    Buckle  reads  off  all  history  in  terms  of 
food  and  climate.     Marx  finds  its  interpretation  in  the  economic 
struggle.    Each  has  grasped  a  truth,  though  not  the  whole  truth. 
Environment  plays  a  very  decisive  part  in  economic  and  social  life. 
Fairbanks  illustrates  the  difference  between  the  French  and  Ger- 
man people  by  reference  to  the  contour  of  their  respective  lands. 
"Paris  is  almost  in  the  center  of  a  large  basin  including  more  than 
half  of  France.     By  nature  it  is  the  political  center  and  the  eco- 
nomic center  of  all  that  region.    This  configuration  of  the  country 
has  been  one  factor  in  producing  the  historic  unity  of  France.    Not 
only  has  the  unity  of  the  nation  remained  for  centuries  unthreat- 
ened,  but  the  life  of  the  people  is  far  more  centralized  than  is  the 
life  of  other  European  peoples.    The  industrial  center  is  Paris.    No 
other  city  has  a  commercial  activity  in  any  sense  independent  of  its 
relation  to  Paris.    Education,  literature,  art,  center  in  the  capital. 
In  Germany,  the  North  German  plain  is  the  only  considerable  geo- 
logical district.    Each  small  district  has  developed  its  own  particular 
customs  and  industries,  its  own  mode  of  thought,  its  own  ideals.    It 
is  impossible  that  the  common  life  of^  the  people  or  its  national  hfe 
should  be  as  centralized  as  in  France."^^ 

Dr.  Williams  finds  the  fundamental  difference  between  Russian 
and  English  history  in  the  difference  between  a  plain  and  an  island. 
The  difference  between  a  sea  and  land  empire  is  constantly  felt 
and  largely  accounts  for  the  striking  difference  between  the  two 
nations 'in  character,  social  structure  and  political  development.  The 
compact,  highly  organized  social  structure  of  an  island  is  m  con- 
trast with  a  diffused  civilization  extending  over  a  wide  geographical 

21 


area  and  not  readily  concentrated  at  any  given  point.  The  natural 
environment  so  different  from  the  snug  compactness  of  an  island 
with  an  even  temperate  climate  has  determined  the  main  lines  of 
Russian  historical  development.^ 

In  a  similar  way  Hogarth  thinks  geographical  conditions  were  a 
determining  factor  in  the  trend  of  Hellenic  life.  The  geography 
and  topography  of  the  country  implanted  in  the  Greek  mind  a  ten- 
dency toward  small  independent  groups  each  imbued  with  its  own 
intense  local  patriotism.^  'The  Aryan  tribes,"  says  Fairbanks, 
"penetrating  into  Greece  were  necessarily  broken  into  smaller 
groups.  Lack  of  communication  between  narrow  valleys  made  the 
culture  of  one  group  less  and  less  like  that  of  others."^^ 

The  Greek  states  represented  varying  ideals.  The  versatile  Athe- 
nian had  little  in  common  with  the  Boeotian  who  was  proverbially 
sluggish.  Gay,  dissipated,  luxurious  Corinth  had  little  in  common 
with  Sparta,  where  every  one  was  poured  in  the  same  mould.  Moun- 
tain barriers  checked  free  communication.  Groups  lived  in  isola- 
tion. Each  developed  a  particular  social  type  apart  from  the  rest. 
In  spite  of  ideal  factors  making  for  unity  there  never  was  much 
real  sympathy  between  Sparta  and  Athens.  Greece  did  not  offer  a 
practical  sphere  in  which  the  ideal  elements  could  come  to  fruitage. 
The  religious  festivals  and  games  kept  alive  memories  of  racial  one- 
ness and  glory,  but  they  did  not  provide  contacts  sufficiently  fre- 
quent, intimate  nor  widespread  to  beget  national  solidarity.  For  a 
time  the  states  forgot  local  differences  under  the  menace  of  foreign 
invasion.  Formidable  danger  from  without  always  draws  a  people 
together  and  inspires  united  action.  But  when  victory  is  achieved 
the  bond  of  union  is  often  weakened,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Balkan 

League. 

Industrial  and  commercial  development  offer  the  best  basis  for 
national  solidarity.  Under  the  strong  motive  of  economic  interest 
constant  contacts  are  provided  and  mutual  relations  are  established, 
bidding  fair  to  continue  unbroken  through  generations.  This  finds 
an  illustration  in  the  history  of  Germany,  which  presented  certain 
ideal  elements  of  unity  in  language,  culture,  tradition  and  blood 
kinship.  Yet  none  of  these  gave  her  a  national  solidarity  until  the 
"Zollverein"  taught  the  German  states  cooperation.  Developed  by 
the  Prussian  financier  Maassen  in  1818,  the  "ZoUverein"  estab- 

22 


lished  an  economic  unity  which  became  the  precursor  of  political 

Such  economic  unity  was  impossible  in  ancient  Greece.  Neither 
the  geography  of  the  country  nor  the  civilization  of  the  time  afforded 
an  impetus  to  the  development  of  the  social  constitution.  The  very 
commerce  itself  in  which  the  Greeks  excelled  was  a  centrifugal  force 
as  regards  their  own  country.  There  was  not  a  sufficiently  wide 
and  constant  interstate  trade  to  beget  the  habit  of  cooperation  and 
to  establish  varied  and  permanent  contacts.  The  social  conscious- 
ness did  not  rise  beyond  the  tribal  stage.  It  was  unable  to  overcome 
the  natural  barriers  to  communication.  The  time  was  not  auspicious 
for  Greek  civilization  to  reach  the  third  and  highest  stage  of  Profes- 
sor Binder's  classification,  the  cooperation  and  peaceful  competi- 
tion of  world-wide  commerce.  Had  the  physical  geography  of 
Greece  been  such  as  to  facilitate  the  growth  of  domestic  trade  on  a 
large  scale,  I  believe  that  the  trend  of  Hellenic  history  might  have 
been  altogether  different.  . 

We  find  then,  an  illustration  of  a  principle  well  established  in 
sociolog}^  namely,  the  process  of  socialization  is  in  large  measure 
dependent  on  the  habit  of  cooperation,  and  this  in  turn  grows  out 
of  easy  and  constant  communication  and  contact.  The  realization 
of  potential  consolidation  in  Greece  was  thwarted  by  the  absence  of 
those  intimate  economic  and  industrial  relations  which  supply  at 
once  the  all-powerful  motive  and  open  the  field  for  national  soh- 
darity. 


23 


PART  II. 

The  destruction  of  Corinth  by  Mummius  in  146  B.  C.  marks  the 
end  of  Greek  independence.  The  battle  of  Navarino  might  be  taken 
as  the  starting  point  of  the  history  of  modern  Greece.  The  scene 
of  Cleon's  signal  victory  in  the  Peloponnesian  war  became  the 
scene  of  an  unexpected  engagement  between  the  Turco-Egyptian 
and  the  allied  fleets  under  the  command  of  Sir  Edward  Codrington. 
A  five-hour  contest  resulted  in  a  decisive  victory  for  the  latter.  The 
date  was  October  20,  1827.  Greek  independence  was  assured.  Then 
began  the  slow  rehabilitation  of  the  Greek  state.  Does  modern 
Greece  in  some  sense  reproduce  the  past?  Shall  we  discover  the 
play  of  the  same  forces  that  were  marked  in  ancient  times?  Can 
we  trace  unbrokenly  the  same  ideals,  tendencies  and  aptitudes  that 
stamp  ancient  and  modern  akin  by  social  heredity?  Is  there  any 
survival  of  the  type  of  mind  that  found  its  highest  satisfaction  in 
the  poHtics  of  the  city  state?  Is  individualism  pronounced  to-day 
as  in  antiquity?  Does  the  attitude  of  the  Greek  toward  coloniza- 
tion, war,  commerce,  bear  any  resemblance  to  what  we  found  in 
classic  times?  Are  racial  pride,  language  and  religion  still  unifying 
bonds  among  the  people  ?    These  are  the  problems  of  our  thesis. 

It  is  very  significant  that  even  at  the  outset  of  modern  Greek  his- 
tory many  patriots,  as  Sergeant  tells  us,  cherished  the  vision  of  a 
revival  of  the  ancient  system  of  local  self  rule.^^  The  idea  of  the 
city  state  still  persisted,  illustrating  the  tendency  of  a  people  to 
think  in  a  certain  groove ;  but  the  idea  no  longer  possessed  vitality 
and  effectiveness.  We  can  point  to  three  factors  that  tended  to 
deprive  it  of  power  and  prevent  its  emergence  as  a  characteristic  of 
Hellenic  life.    These  were : 

(a)  The  influence  of  Alexander's  conquests; 

(b)  The  influence  of  Turkish  domination;  and 

(c)  The  consciousness  of  national  solidarity  which  was  such  a 

24 


marked  phenomenon  in  European  history  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Alexander  introduced  into  Greek  life  the  ideal  of  a  larger  Hellen- 
ism. The  accident  of  his  death  prevented  the  unification  of  the 
world.  He  dreamed  a  dream  of  world  empire  and  conceived  his 
program  with  a  breadth  of  vision  far  more  consonant  with  the  im- 
perial mould  of  the  Latin  mind  than  the  exclusiveness  of  the  Greek. 

Four  centuries  of  Turkish  domination  drew  the  Greek  people 
together,  obliterating  the  old  time  animosities  and  welding  them 
into  a  homogeneous  nation,  in  which  there  was  no  Sparta,  no 
Athens,  no  Thebes.  And  finally,  the  Greeks  felt  the  influence  of  the 
spirit  of  the  times— the  Zeitgeist— which  expressed  itself  every- 
where in  a  trend  toward  national  unification. 

Thus  it  came  about  that  modern  Greece  possessed  a  political  unity 
which  ancient  Greece  had  never  known.     The  modern  kingdom 
came  first  under  the  regime  of  the  Bavarian  Otto,  whose  rule  did 
not  bring  prosperity.     He  was  succeeded  in  1863  by  the  late  King 
George.    But  even  under  the  changed  conditions  of  modern  Greece, 
the  old  passion  for  local  autonomy  lives  on.^^    The  habit  of  thought 
persists.    This  is  especially  true  in  the  interior  towns  which  are  less 
affected  by  the  movement  of  life  beyond  their  immediate  borders. 
Here  the  traveler  notices  the  stubborn  persistence  of  the  narrow 
tribal  outlook,  which  as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  strikes  its  roots 
in  the  topography  of  the  land.     'There  is  to-day,"  says  Rodd,  "a 
stationary  character  and  a  marked  separate  individuality  from  val- 
ley to  valley  and  range  to  range  which  has  been  accentuated  by  the 
physical  features  of  the  country,  the  difficulty  of  communication, 
and  the  long  devious  paths  which  separate  dwellers  in  one  plain 
from  their  immediate  neighbors  across  the  mountains.     Boeotian 
will  still  be  found  somewhat  of  a  stranger  in  Sparta,  and  I  have 
heard  those  in  Sparta  express  themselves  very  disparagingly  of  their 
neighbors  across  Taygetus  and  of  the  race  of  Messenians  in  gen- 
eral."^   Throughout  Greece  there  is  a  tendency  to  set  the  interests 
of  a  district  or  town  above  the  general  interests  of  the  nation.    The 
Greeks  to-day  are  no  more  inclined  to  take  a  large,  national  view 
than  were  the  Greeks  of  classic  times,  and  the  passion  for  politics  is 
unabated  as  in  the  Periclean  age.    It  pervades  every  class.x''The 
mildest  dissipation  of  the  native  laborer  or  artisan,"  says  Martin, 
"is  to  pass  a  few  hours  outside  or  inside  one  of  the  numerous  cafes 

25 


M 


discussing  local  politics.  He  cares  and  knows  nothing  about  cul- 
ture, though  he  is  shrewd  enough  to  follow  the  trend  of  public 
events  and  the  consequences  which  legislation  is  destined  to  have 
upon  his  particular  interests. "^*^ 

"The  Greeks,"  says  Miller,  *'are  almost  all  born  politicians,  to 
whom  political  discussion  is  as  the  breath  of  their  nostrils.  Before 
and  during  each  sitting  of  Parliament  the  courtyard  is  crowded 
with  spectators  and  the  galleries  are  usually  full.  Politics  are  the 
morning  and  evening  pabulum  of  Athens  and  the  debates  are  min- 
utely followed  in  the  paper.  The  discussions  of  the  ancient  Athenian 
democracy  are  vividly  recalled."^® 

This  all  engrossing  enthusiasm  for  politics  has  had  a  baneful  effect 
on  Hellenic  progress.  The  professions  are  overstocked.  The  agri- 
cultural resources  are  undeveloped.  There  has  been  raised  up  an 
army  of  professional  politicians  whose  influence  is  detrimental. 
Endless  political  turmoil  has  been  engendered. 

In  1872,  Secretary  Watson  of  the  British  legation  at  Athens 
pointed  out  this  weakness.  "While  there  is  felt  in  Greece  a  painful 
dearth  of  men  whose  education  has  fitted  them  to  supply  some  of 
the  multifarious  material  wants  of  the  country— surveying,  farm- 
ing, road  making,  bridge  building,  there  is  a  plethora  of  lawyers, 
writers  and  clerks,  who  in  the  absence  of  regular  occupation  become 
agitators  and  coffee-house  politicians."^^ 

Mahaffy  bears  witness  to  the  same.  'The  study  of  politics  has 
been  driven  too  far.  The  people  find  agricultural  pursuits  not  to 
their  liking.  I  am  informed  that  many  Greek  politicians  are  paupers 
who  sit  about  the  cafe  on  the  lookout  for  one  of  the  ten  thousand 
places  devised  for  the  patronage  of  the  ministry.  As  there  are  thirty 
thousand  expectants,  twenty  thousand  disappointed  are  always  at 
work  seeking  to  turn  out  the  ten  thousand."^^ 

Sergeant,  writing  in  1897,  says :  "The  Greeks  naturally  incline  to 
methods  of  parliamentary  government  and  are  disposed  by  training 
and  tradition  to  throw  themselves  with  fervor  into  the  business  of 
debate  and  intrigue.  The  circumstances  of  the  country  render  com- 
petition for  every  political  office  exceedingly  keen."'^^ 

Jebb,  in  1901,  says:  "Greece  has  universal  suffrage  and  civil 
servants  are  removable  on  a  change  of  ministry.  Thus  there  has 
been  a  general  dearth  of  secure  careers  for  able  men.    The  liberal 

26 


professions  have  been  overcrowded.  Greece  has  too  many  politicians 
and  political  journals.  There  is  a  disproportionately  large  number 
of  men  who  are  educated  for  law,  medicine,  journalism,  politics. 
Politics  should  cease  to  be  a  game  played  between  holders  and  seek- 
ers of  office  and  all  local  personal  interests  should  be  uniformly  and 
steadfastly  subordinated  to  the  public  interests  of  the  country."*^* 

I  am  very  much  impressed  with  the  uniformity  of  testimony  on 
this  point.  Every  one  who  has  any  acquaintance  with  modern 
Greek  life  is  conscious  of  the  disastrous  effect  of  the  inordinate 
pursuit  of  politics.  Miller  says  that  even  the  army  system  is  vitiated 
by  politics,  which  greatly  impairs  its  efficiency."'^^ 

The  Greek  press  is  largely  concerned  with  politics.  "The 
Greeks,"  says  Martin,  "are  the  greatest  readers  of  newspapers  in 
the  world.  The  political  intelligence  of  the  day,  foreign  and  at 
home,  forms  the  one  and  only  subject  in  which  the  average  Greek 
takes  any  particular  interest."*^^       ^ 

Athens,  with  more  than  a  dozen  newspapers  for  her  population  of 
two  hundred  thousand  people,  even  when  you  take  into  account  the 
fact  that  the  area  of  circulation  extends  throughout  the  kingdom, 
displays  a  kinship  with  the  ancients  who  in  5t^aul's  day  "spent 
their  time  in  nothing  else  but  either  to  tell  or  to  hear  some  new 
thing,"  and  whom  Demosthenes  represents  as  walking  about  and 
asking  one  another,  "Is  there  any  news  ?*''^'^ 

We  noted  as  characteristic  of  ancient  Hellas  an  extreme  indi- 
vidual freedom.  The  same  individualism  is  as  marked  to-day  as  in 
ancient  times.  Jealousy,  rivalry,  restiveness,  factiousness,  self- 
assertion,  inhere  in  the  national  character. 

In  1823-4,  Greek  success  was  ebbing.  The  people  were  divided 
into  factions  springing  from  conflict  of  private  interests.'^^  Byron 
saw  clearly  that  nothing  could  be  accomplished  until  the  Greeks 
were  at  unity  among  themselves.  From  the  outset  the  Greek  revo- 
lution was  well  nigh  paralyzed  by  discord.  Concerted  effort  was 
rendered  impossible.    Each  band  wished  to  act  apart. 

Tuckerman  points  to  personal  ambition  as  the  most  prominent 
trait  in  Greek  character.  "Rivalry  is  the  whetstone  of  university, 
bar,  political  arena."  "Jealousy  is  prominent  in  communities  and 
individuals.  Attica  and  the  Peloponnesus  faintly  recall  to-day  the 
dissensions  of  ancient  times.     Continental  Greece  and  the  Ionian 

27 


Islands  view  each  other  askant.  Between  provinces,  villages  and 
classes  exist  jealousies  and  petty  feuds  that  seem  beyond  power  of 
reconciliation.  There  is  no  sacrifice  for  the  good  of  the  whole. "'^ 
Mahaffy  says  that  "jealousy  is  specially  engrained  in  the  texture  of 
Greek  nature."^ 

The  personal  equation  plays  a  big  part  in  Greek  life.  It  enters 
largely  into  politics.  "In  Greece,"  says  Miller,  "  a  dissatisfied  place 
hunter  goes  over  bag  and  baggage  to  the  opposition.  No  one  is  in 
the  least  scandalized  at  such  a  rapid  change  of  front,  because  politics 
in  Greece  have  nothing  to  do  with  principles,  but  are  wholly  per- 
sonal. There  being  no  burning  differences  of  principle  between 
parties,  parliamentary  life  becomes  a  struggle  between  rival  leaders. 
Each  has  his  faction  behind  him,  which  he  must  placate  with  spoils 
of  office  when  he  comes  into  power."®^ 

"During  the  parliamentary  election  time,"  says  Martin,  "all  Greece 
is  in  noisy  ferment.  Candidates  are  engaged  day  and  night  in  inter- 
viewing and  being  interviewed.  In  Greece  alone  I  have  observed 
the  strong  personal  as  opposed  to  party  element  in  election  cam- 
paigns. The  majority  of  candidates  avowedly  have  no  policy.  They 
follow  blindly  the  particular  political  chief ."®^ 

Tuckerman  says :  "Unlike  our  own  election,  where  the  announce- 
ment of  the  elected  candidate  is  like  oil  on  the  waters  of  clamor  and 
effervescence  of  parties,  the  defeated  candidates  retire  from  the 
open  field  to  unite  to  get  their  opponents  ousted  on  the  first  con- 
venient opportunity."^ 

Professor  Wheeler  considers  aversion  to  mechanical  discipline  a 
deep-seated  national  characteristic  running  through  the  whole  life 
from  the  drill  of  the  soldiers  to  a  funeral  procession.  "Men  walk 
together  on  the  street  but  do  not  keep  step.  A  Greek  funeral  pro- 
cession presents  a  disorderly  and  individualistic  appearance.  The 
people  go  on  foot.  Each  seems  to  be  strolling  on  his  own  account. 
There  is  no  fixed  order  of  procedure.  Every  one  does  what  seems 
to  him  good.  If  there  occurs  a  halt  in  the  proceeding  a  debate  may 
ensue.  Three  out  of  four  of  the  bearers  will  prove  to  be  orators. 
There  is  no  one  person  in  authority.  Five  or  six  different  ones  are 
giving  orders  or  making  suggestions  at  the  same  time.  The  same 
popular  trait  shows  itself  wherever  masses  of  people  are  as- 
sembled."«* 


The  special  war  correspondent  for  Reuters  in  the  Greco-Turkish 
war  of  1897  strikingly  confirms  Wheeler's  observation.  "Here  I 
may  sum  up  the  impression  derived  from  a  close  inspection  of  the 
men  at  Athens,  at  Volo  and  at  Larissa.  So  far  as  the  rank  and  file 
were  concerned,  the  physique  was  excellent.  As  men  they  would 
compare  well  with  the  soldiers  of  any  other  nation  of  Europe.  .  .  . 
But  their  drill  was  loose  and  their  bearing  could  scarcely  be  called 
soldierly.  One  could  not  watch  them  long  without  being  impressed 
with  the  general  intelligence  of  all  and  that  they  were  anxious  to  do 
their  duty  as  far  as  it  accorded  with  their  notions  of  discipline.  And 
here  was  the  weak  spot  in  the  whole  Greek  army.  There  was  no 
real  sense  of  strict  military  discipline.  The  drill  was  left  mainly  to 
the  non-commissioned  officers.  There  was  no  habit  of  implicit 
obedience  to  orders.  I  have  actually  seen  an  officer  approach  a 
private  and  implore  him  as  a  favor  to  do  what  he  had  been  told  by 
his  non-commissioned  drill  instructor.  On  another  occasion  when 
a  shower  of  rain  came  on  during  drill  a  battalion  simply  melted 
away  to  seek  the  shelter  of  the  nearest  trees.  1 

"One  trained  in  British  methods,  much  more  one  cognizant  of  the 
stern  discipline  of  the  German  army,  must  have  been  shocked  at  the 
free  and  easy  familiarity  between  officers  and  privates  on  and  off 
duty.  On  the  streets  and  in  cafes  privates  mixed  on  a  footing  of 
perfect  equality  with  their  superior  officers  and  debated  with  free- 
dom military  subjects. "^^ 

Miller  speaks  of  this  same  lack  of  discipline.  "The  soldier  or- 
dered to  execute  a  certain  manoeuvre  instead  of  obeying  blindly 
pauses  to  consider  whether  the  officer  has  given  the  right  order."^^ 

The  same  writer  says:  "One  unfortunate  result  of  the  extreme 
democracy  so  firmly  ingrained  in  the  Hellenic  character  is  the  dis- 
inclination to  obey  a  leader  and  the  consequent  tendency  to  split  up 
into  cliques  and  groups.  Again  and  again  the  daily  life  of  Greece 
shows  the  impossibility  of  forming  clubs  and  companies  or  anything 
which  requires  cooperation  and  the  subordination  of  the  individual 
to  the  whole.  The  Greeks  have  an  intense  distrust  of  one  another 
and  this  is  an  immense  hindrance  to  the  development  of  the  coun- 
try. For  this  reason  Greek  companies  cannot  be  formed  to  exploit 
its  universal  resources."®^ 

In  1905  there  was  a  project  of  establishing  a  line  of  steamships 


28 


29 


4 


'f 


from  the  Piraeus  to  New  York.  It  fell  through  on  account  of  per- 
sonal differences  between  the  directors.  The  company  split  up  mto 
hostile  factions.  One  had  the  ships.  The  other  had  the  money. 
This  is  a  parable  of  the  whole  situation.  It  is  hard  for  Greeks  to 
work  together.  They  lack  self-restraint  and  disciphnef-what  Ar- 
nold calls  the  "power  of  conduct"-in  which  the  Romans  excelled 
and  which  became  a  source  of  strength  in  Rome's  history.  It  was 
quite  characteristic  of  the  Greek  nature  to  continue  fightmg  the 
Turk  when  their  Balkan  allies  granted  an  armistice  for  negotiatmg 
peace »»  It  was  no  less  characteristic  for  Greeks  and  Bulgars  to 
fall  out  of  aUiance.  Social  heredity  asserts  itself.  Of  old  "scarcely 
had  the  last  Persian  left  Hellenic  soil  before  those  who  fought  side 
by  side  at  Salamis  were  at  one  another's  throats." 

With  regard  to  the  energy  of  the  Greeks  in  colonization,  their  atti- 
tude toward  war  and  their  commercial  activity,  what  has  been  af- 
firmed of  the  ancient  people  well  describes  the  situation  to-day. 

There  is  the  same  "wanderlust"  as  of  old.  Greek  emigrants  seek 
outlet  for  their  energy  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  from  the  United 
States  to  the  Transvaal,  carrying  Hellenic  traditions  and  preserving 
and  perpetuating  them  in  a  marked  way. 

As  in  ancient  Hellas,  the  military  ideal  plays  no  significant  part. 
Miller  says  that  the  Greeks  do  not  as  a  nation  like  the  military 
career  and  the  service  is  not  popular  with  them.««  But  when  the 
country  calls,  the  Greek  responds.  Opinions  differ  as  to  his  fighting 
ability  Wheeler  thinks  he  is  distinguished  by  "dash  rather  than 
good  staying  power."  He  lacks  the  solid,  monotonous,  plodding 
spirit  of  the  German.  He  will  excel  in  such  military  operations  as 
admit  of  an  element  of  sport,  the  exercise  of  wits,  features  of  sur- 
prise and  shifting  interest.^^  Cassavetti  says :  "The  Hellene's  tem- 
perament is  such  that  an  initial  success  or  failure  may  be  critical  for 
him.    A  success  inspires  and  gives  confidence.    A  serious  check  is 

apt  to  destroy  morale."^^ 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  lack  of  discipline  which  the  mod- 
ern Greek  soldier  shares  in  common  with  the  ancient  Athenian.  The 
Greek  army  has,  however,  shown  improvement  in  this  respect  since 
1897  when  it  proved  unequal  to  the  combat  with  Turkey .^^  Greece 
emerged  from  the  Balkan  war  with  large  gains  due,  I  think,  not  so 
much  to  military  skill  as  to  a  combination  of  favorable  circum- 

30 


stances,  and  especially  to  the  diplomatic  talent  of  the  great  Veni- 
zelos,  who  ranks  with  the  leading  statesmen  of  the  world.  As  of 
old,  Greece  is  winning  her  biggest  victories  through  diplomacy,  not 
through  military  power.  \  It  must,  however,  be  said  tliat  the  people 
are  keenly  awake  to  the  need  of  a  strong  army  and  navy  and  under 
the  regime  of  her  soldier  king  we  may  confidently  expect  military 
progress. 

In  commerce,  the  Greek"  reproduces  most  strikingly  the  type  of 
the  ancients.  "The  Greeks,"  says  one  writer,  "have  a  national 
genius  for  commerce.  They  succeed  best  in  countries  where  con- 
ditions are  advanced.  Their  intelligence  readily  allies  itself  with  the 
superior  facilities. "^^  ''Owing  to  their  natural  aptitude  for  com- 
merce," says  the  the  author  of  "Greece  of  the  Hellenes,"  "as  also 
to  their  predilection  for  seafaring  life,  the  Greeks  have  secured  a 
great  proportion  of  the  trade  of  the  Levant. "^^ 

""The  activity,  thrift,  skill,  and  prosperity  of  Greek  merchants," 
says  Sergeant,  "are  attested  wherever  markets  are  open  to  them. 
Commercial  aptitude  continues  to  be  one  of  the  characteristic  feat- 
ures of  the  race."^ 

Greek  history  presents  an  almost  unbroken  record  of  commercial 
success  from  antiquity,  through  Byzantine  times  down  to  our  own 
day.  The  author  of  "Greece  and  the  Ionian  Islands"  says  that  "the 
Hellenic  race  is  the  motive  power  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  trade, 
industry  and  civilization."^^  "The  Turk,"  says  Schurman,  "is  a 
soldier  and  farmer.  The  Greek  is  preeminent  as  a  trader  and  his 
ability  secures  him  a  disproportionate  share  of  the  trade  of  the 
empire."^ 

It  is  remarkable  how  the  Greek  love  of  disputation  manifests  it- 
self in  every-day  trading.  Wheeler  says  that  "the  Greek  shopkeeper 
cannot  tolerate  a  one-price  system.  The  consummation  of  every 
trade  involves  a  duel  of  wits  and  a  certain  amount  of  conversation. 
If  you  take  time  enough  and  argue  well,  you  may  often  induce  a 
Greek  to  sell  for  really  less  than  he  ought  to."^^  "It  is  very  amus- 
ing to  stand  by,"  says  Tuckerman,  "and  watch  the  process  of  a 
business  transaction  even  if  it  be  the  buying  and  selling  of  a  string 
of  dried  onions.  Argument  is  often  lost  in  the  vehement  simultane- 
ous declamation  of  both  parties. "^^^  "A  long  argument  over  the 
price  to  be  paid,"  says  Miller,  "leaves  no  rancour  behind  it.     The 

31 


.1!  ' 


Greek  regards  such  a  process  as  the  natural  way  of  doing  business 
and  when  it  is  over  he  will  ask  you  to  take  a  cup  of  coffee  or  offer 
to  show  you  the  sights  just  as  if  you  had  accepted  his  first  proposal 

without  demur."^^^  ^      ,  ^    .  lu 

The  Greek  salesman,  like  the  peddlar  in  Romola,  loves  to  talk 
over  the  purchase,  betraying  even  in  his  commercial  transactions 
the  instinct  to  have  things  talked  over  which  was  a  characteristic 
old  as  Homeric  society,  where  open  discussion  was  a  leading  tact 
in  every-day  Hfe.^^^ 

We  noted  in  ancient  times  that  a  certain  prejudice  against  the 
Greeks  found  expression  in  Roman  writers.  A  similar  prejudice 
to-day  leads  occasionally  to  the  charge  that  the  Greeks  are  dishon- 
est, crafty,  untrustworthy.  Byron  gives  expression  to  prevalent 
opinion  in  the  lines : 

"Still  to  the  neighboring  ports  they  waft 
Proverbial  wiles  and  ancient  craft, 
In  this  the  subtle  Greek  is  found. 
For  this  and  this  alone,  renowned."^^" 

Tuckerman  finds  the  source  of  this  idea  in  the  low  character  of 
the  mixed  population  of  the  Levantine  ports.^^  The  seaport  towns 
of  Europe,''  says  Grosvenor,  ''especially  the  Mediterranean,  nourish 
a  peculiar  brood.  A  sort  of  human  scum  drifts  along  the  coast. 
Here  the  dishonest  Greek  is  only  the  most  dextrous  among  many 
rivals  "^«^  "The  Levantine  Greeks,"  says  Cassavetti,  "are  not  true 
Greeks  but  Hellenized  Levantines  who  perhaps  for  two  centuries 
have  been  known  in  Western  Europe  as  sharp  and  not  altogether 
honest  traders.  The  Levantine  Greek  cannot  be  taken  m  any  way 
representative  of  the  Greek  of  to-day.  He  has  characteristics  which 
are  quite  foreign  to  Hellenic  character  as  any  one  will  discover  who 
cares  to  visit  Greece  and  tries  to  understand  something  of  her 

people."i««  ^ 

Those  who  know  Hellenic  life  intimately  seem  to  agree  that  the 
average  Greek  to-day  measures  well  up  to  the  standard  of  any  other 
class.  Grosvenor  points  out  that  the  leading  Greek  firms  of  Lon- 
don, Marseilles,  Trieste  and  Constantinople  are  deservedly  esteemed 
for 'integrity  and  business  honor.  Their  reputation  is  as  high  as 
French,  English  and  American  houses.^^^    Tuckerman  thinks  that 

32 


the  commercial  and  working  classes  in  a  Greek  city  are  as  respect- 
able and  honest  as  the  same  classes  in  other  European  cities.^^» 
Miller  reaches  a  similar  conclusion.  He  thinks  that  the  cosmopoli- 
tan inhabitants  of  the  large  cities  are  not  truly  representative  of 
the  Greek  and  he  bears  high  testimony  to  the  honesty  of  the  country 

folk.i«« 

Mahaffy  refers  to  instances  in  which  the  Greek  ministers  have 
been  known  to  accept  bribes."^  This  is  a  modern  parallel  to  the 
"graft"  so  common  among  ancient  Athenians. 

In  general,  modern  Greek  commerce  follows  the  same  lines  as 
the  ancient.  It  is  foreign  rather  than  domestic.  The  physical  geog- 
raphy of  the  country  has  determined  its  trend.  Facilities  of  trans- 
portation within  Greece  are  backward.  *Tt  is  only  within  the  last 
fifty  years,"  says  Martin,  "that  Greece  has  been  able  to  boast  of 
any  organized  railway  system.  The  progress  of  construction  has  not 
been  commensurate  with  the  general  improvement  in  the  country's 
commerce  and  industry.""^  Greece  has  now  seven  railway  sys- 
tems. In  marked  contrast  is  the  phenomenal  growth  of  the  mercan- 
tile marine.  In  1896  the  foreign  commerce  of  Greece  was  valued 
at  £7,560,000.    In  1910  it  had  risen  to  £11,841,975.1^2 

In  1912  the  foreign  trade  of  Greece  amounted  to  $57,724,194. 
The  value  of  merchandise  imported  was  $29,734,960.  The  exports 
were  valued  at  $27,989,234.  The  countries  which  share  in  the 
trade  of  Greece  in  order  of  their  relative  importance  are  Great 
Britain,  Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  Germany,  France,  United  States, 
Netherlands,  Bulgaria,  Turkey,  Belgium,  Egypt,  Italy,  Roumama, 

and  Switzerland.ii^ 

Statesmen  are  awakening  to  the  necessity  of  developing  home 
industries.  Speaking  of  the  high  cost  of  living  in  the  Patras  district, 
Consul  Arthur  B.  Cooke  says:  "Most  articles  of  food  and  clothing 
used  by  the  better  classes  are  imported;  and  since  practically  all 
these  articles  pay  a  high  duty,  the  cost  of  living  for  the  better  classes 
in  Greece  is  unusually  high.  Strong  efforts  are  being  made  by  the 
Government  to  reduce  the  cost  of  living  and  to  develop  domestic 
industries,  thus  furnishing  opportunity  for  labor  and  making  the 
conditions  of  life  more  attractive  for  those  who  might  be  disposed 
to  seek  their  fortunes  in  foreign  lands."^** 

Having  noted  the  operation  of  these  centrifugal  forces  in  modem 

33 


i-Tai^'i  .     t^ 


Greek  life,  modified  in  some  measure  by  the  new  conditions,  we  ask 
now  whether  the  unifying  power  of  race,  language  and  religion 
can  still  be  felt,  and  I  think  we  shall  find  that  social  heredity  is 
here  even  more  striking. 

Racial  pride  among  the  Greeks  is  no  less  pronounced  than  in 
antiquity.  The  Greek  believes  implicitly  in  his  Hellenic  lineage, 
regarding  himself  the  direct  descendant  of  the  classic  people.  The 
scholarly  Bikelas  states  the  conviction  in  these  words:  "The  en- 
tirely and  exclusively  Hellenic  character  of  all  the  features,  physical 
and  intellectual,  presented  by  the  present  inhabitants  of  the  country 
is  a  most  striking  fact,  almost  unique  in  history,  a  glorious  mark  of 
our  race  and  a  wondrous  proof  of  the  intensity  of  our  national 
vitality.""^ 

Wheeler  says  that  "the  modern  Greek  is  morally  convinced  that 
he  is  lineally  descended  from  the  men  who  made  the  Greece  of  old 
the  motherland  of  art,  eloquence,  letters,  civics,  philosophic  thought 
and  human  liberty.  With  intellectual  conviction  on  the  subject  he 
refuses  to  deal."^^^  "One  cannot  hurt  a  modern  Greek  more 
surely,"  says  Martin,  "than  by  telling  him  he  is  not  a  descendant  of 
the  ancient  Hellenic  race."^^^ 

Unbroken  Hellenic  ancestry  is  assumed  by  every  Greek  writer. 
When  Germanos  of  Patras  raised  the  standard  of  insurrection 
against  the  Turks,  he  drew  up  a  letter  to  the  European  consuls 
pleading  for  support  on  the  ground  *'of  the  services  rendered  to 
humanity  by  our  ancestors."^^® 

When  the  Cretans  sought  American  sympathy  in  their  attempt 
to  throw  off  the  Moslem  yoke  they  began  their  appeal  in  this  char- 
acteristic way,  "We,  the  descendants  of  Minos  and  of  Jupiter."^^® 

The  deep-seated  conviction  has  left  a  decided  impress  on  Greek 
character.  It  has  kept  them  close  to  ancient  ideals.  In  language, 
thought  and  custom  the  Greek  reverts  to  the  classic  era  for  his 
standard.  "No  motive  appeals  more  strongly  to  the  modern  Greek 
than  the  desire  to  be  worthy  of  those  he  believes  to  be  his  ances- 
tors."*^*^ There  is  a  conscious  aim  to  reproduce  the  past.  It  is  very 
significant  that  at  the  revival  of  the  Olympic  games  in  1896  the 
Greeks  threw  the  discus  according  to  ancient  method.  They  had 
never  heard  of  any  other  way.*^^ 

This  belief  in  their  classic  ancestry  has  begotten  a  somewhat  nar- 

34 


row  and  intolerant  pride  of  superiority.  "The  Greeks,"  says  Miller, 
"are  justly  tenacious  of  Hellenic  descent  and  nothing  is  further 
from  their  desires  than  to  be  represented  in  any  way,  however  re- 
motely, connected  with  their  hated  rivals  the  Balkan  Slavs."*^^ 

There  is  a  certain  racial  arrogance  about  the  Greek  when  he  is 
brought  into  cooperation  with  other  peoples.  This  is  especially 
manifest  in  church  affairs.  Under  Ottoman  rule,  the  Greek  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  has  a  unique  position  as  the  political  repre- 
sentative of  the  Christian  population  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  So 
carefully  were  all  national  and  racial  aspirations  of  the  different 
peoples  within  the  fold  of  the  Orthodox  communion  repressed  that 
the  Greek  Patriarchate,  as  von  Mach  says,  "was  well  on  its  way 
toward  making  all  the  Christian  subjects  of  the  Sultan,  Orthodox 
by  religion  and  Greek  by  nationality."*^^     ^ 

With  a  growing  consciousness  of  nationality,  the  Bulgars  grew 
restive  under  the  ecclesiastical  rule  of  the  Greeks  and  demanded  a 
national  hierarchy.  In  1870  a  firman  established  the  Bulgarian 
exarchate.  This  implied  the  formal  recognition  of  a  Bulgar  as  dis- 
tinct from  a  Greek  nationality.  Friction  arose  between  the  Greek 
Patriarch  and  the  Bulgarian  Exarch  and  schism  ensued  in  the 
church.  The  intense  bitter  antipathy  between  Greek  and  Bulgar, 
between  patriarchist  and  exarchist,  has  been  the  source  of  the 
gravest  complications  in  the  Macedonian  situation.  The  friction 
strengthened  the  Sultan's  hold  on  Macedonia  and  gives  us  the  key 
to  the  interpretation  of  this  involved  chapter  in  the  history  of  the 

Near  East. 

A  recent  situation  in  Palestine  affords  illustration  of  a  similar 
attitude  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks.  The  churches  in  Jerusalem  and 
neighboring  towns  are  largely  Arab  in  their  membership,  but  the 
higher  ecclesiastics  are  all  Greek  who  carefully  exclude  the  natives 
from  ecclesiastical  preferment  and  higher  educational  opportunities. 
The  result  is  an  undercurrent  of  friction  which  at  times  breaks  out 
in  open  revolt. 

The  persistence  of  language  affords  another  illustration  of  social 
heredity.  The  Greek  language  registers  the  vicissitudes  of  Greek 
history.  By  the  tenth  century  classic  Greek  ceased  to  be  under- 
stood and  by  the  thirteenth  century  the  popular  language  was  a 
dialect. 

as 


It  was  Adamantios  Coraes  (1748-1833)  who  laid  the  foundations 
of  modern  literary  Greek.  A  native  of  Chios  and  an  ardent  patriot, 
he  sought  to  rouse  among  his  countrymen  the  conviction  that  as 
true  descendants  of  the  ancients  they  should  regard  as  their  own 
the  heritage  of  classic  times.  He  conceived  the  purification  of  the 
language,  the  elimination  of  foreign  words,  and  a  return  as  closely 
as  possible  to  Hellenistic  standards.^^* 

Mahaffy  says  that  the  present  Greeks  read  the  old  classics  as  well 
at  first  sight  as  our  peasants  could  read  Chaucer.  There  is  little 
change  between  the  language  of  Plato  and  that  of  the  present 
Greek.125 

*The  Latin  language,"  says  Jebb,  "passing  into  Romance  was 
disintegrated.  Greek  was  for  centuries  rude  and  ungrammatical, 
with  foreign  words  thrust  in,  but  in  the  organic  matters  of  structure 
and  syntax,   Greek  never  made  a  compromise  with  any   foreign 

tongue."^^^ 

"The  process  of  transforming  the  Hellenic  language  into  the  mod- 
ern Greek  dialect,"  says  Finlay,  "evidently  arose  from  a  long  neglect 
of  the  rules  of  grammar  and  orthography.  The  pronunciation, 
though  corrupted  by  the  confusion  it  makes  of  vowels  and  diph- 
thongs, proves  by  the  very  tenacity  with  which  it  has  preserved  the 
Hellenic  accentuation  that  modern  Greek  is  a  lineal  descendant  of 
the  classic  language,  for  with  its  inflections  correctly  written,  it 
might  easily  be  mistaken  for  a  colloquial  dialect  of  some  ancient 
Greek  colony.  There  is  hardly  more  difference  between  the  lan- 
guage of  Homer  and  the  New  Testament  than  between  that  of  the 
New  Testament  and  a  modern  Greek  review."^^"^  There  is  a  ten- 
dency to-day  both  in  written  and  spoken  Greek  to  approximate  to  the 
classic  type.  The  tenacity  with  which  the  Greek  clings  to  this  ideal 
found  illustration  in  the  "Gospel  Riots"  of  1901,  which  arose  out 
of  the  indignation  of  students  at  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  the  vernacular  which  they  regarded  as  a  debased  form. 

Talking  to  an  educated  Greek,  a  university  man,  whom  I  met  on 
the  steamer  at  Patras,  I  happened  to  mention  that  I  had  a  modern 
Greek  Testament,  whereupon  he  begged  me  to  destroy  it. 

The  author  of  "When  I  Was  a  Boy  in  Greece"  gives  a  vivid  pic- 
ture of  the  pride  with  which  the  Greek  boy  is  taught  to  regard 
the  language.     "With  what  ease  and  pleasure  an  intelligent  Greek 

36 


boy  who  has  passed  through  his  grammar  school,  where  he  only 
learns  modern  Greek,  will  tackle  his  Anabasis  when  he  goes  to  the 
'gymnasium,'  and  he  finds  out  that  there  is  about  the  same  differ- 
ence between  the  modern  Greek  that  he  speaks  to-day  and  the 
Greek  of  Xenophon,  as  there  is  between  the  Greek  of  Xenophon 
and  that  of  Homer.  It  is  always  a  living  language  to  us,  and  I 
remember  how  indignant  we  boys  felt  and  how  unreasonable  it 
appeared  to  us  when  the  master  told  us  one  day  that  the  Greek 
taught   in   England   was    taught   in   a   pronunciation   of    English 

making."^^® 

The  conformity  of  modern  Greek  to  classic  standards  and  the 
tenacity  with  which  the  people  cling  to  the  language  have  been  re- 
garded by  some  as  conclusive  proof  of  physical  heredity.  Even  so 
great  an  authority  as  Mahaffy  falls  into  confusion  on  this  point, 
finding  in  the  persistence  of  language  the  principal  support  for  his 
contention  of  the  descent  of  modern  Greeks  from  the  classic  Hel- 
lenes i2«  Language,  however,  does  not  establish  physical  heredity. 
The  Bulgars  are  Slavs  in  speech,  but  of  Finn  or  Turk  descent. 
The  Roumanians  are  probably  Slavic  in  origin  but  Romance  in 
language.13^  Speech  gives  no  criterion  of  race.  It  is  proof  of 
social  contact  not  of  racial  heredity. 

Even  greater  perhaps  in  its  unifying  power  than  either  race  or 
language  is  the  Greek  Church.  It  is  part  of  the  Eastern  Orthodox 
communion  which  includes  the  patriarchates  of  Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  Antioch  and  Jerusalem,  the  national  churches  of  Rus- 
sia, Servia,  Montenegro,  Roumania,  Bulgaria,  the  Cypriote  Church 
and  certain  independent  metropolitanates  in  Austro-Hungary.  Its 
doctrines  are  established  by  the  seven  ecumenical  councils.  The 
Eastern  and  Western  churches  differ  in  spirit  and  point  of  view. 
Eastern  theological  thought  is  rooted  in  Greek  philosophy.  West- 
ern theology  reflects  the  spirit  of  Roman  law.  The  Latm  ideal  is 
monarchical,  a  government  from  one  centre  obliterating  as  far  as 
possible  national  distinctions.  The  Eastern  Church  is  a  confedera- 
tion with  no  one  head  and  recognizes  nationality  as  a  controlhng 
influence  in  ecclesiastical  development.  The  Byzantine  hturgy, 
lengthy,  rhetorical,  awe-inspiring,  impressive,  reflects  the  tempera- 
ment of  a  people  who  incline  to  the  metaphysical  aspect  of  religion 
and  delight  to  dwell  on  the  subtle  mysteries  of  the  faith.^^i 

37 


No  nation  presents  greater  religious  homogeneity  than  the  Greek. 
Among  no  people  is  the  idea  of  the  identity  of  church  and  state 
more  thoroughly  rooted.  Whatever  seems  even  remotely  to  tres- 
pass on  the  former  is  regarded  as  treason  to  the  latter.  The  attitude 
of  the  people  toward  religion  presents  a  striking  likeness  to  ancient 
days.  Le  Bon  raises  the  question  whether  a  people  ever  changes  its 
faith.  He  says  "conversion  en  masse  takes  place,  but  a  close  study 
shows  that  what  people  have  more  especially  changed  is  the  name 
of  the  old  religion  and  not  the  religion  itself.  The  adopted  beliefs 
have  been  transformed  and  brought  into  touch  with  the  old  ones 
they  replaced."^^^ 

While  we  may  not  be  prepared  to  go  to  the  full  length  of  Le 
Bon's  conclusion,  yet  the  study  of  comparative  religion  affords  in- 
numerable instances  in  which  his  statement  holds  true.  The  cross 
on  the  grave  of  the  Christian  Samoyed  is  supplemented  by  the 
overturned  sledge  to  convey  the  dead  safely  over  the  snows  of  the 
underworld.^^^  Among  the  Christian  Lapps  the  old  notions  of  a 
material  after-life  survive.^^*  Social  psychology  takes  cognizance  of 
this  persistence.  Professor  Ross  stresses  the  survival  of  form 
where  the  spirit  has  changed.^^^ 

In  no  field  does  this  find  such  a  wealth  of  illustration  as  in  the 
religion  and  folk  lore  of  modern  Greece.  The  author  of  "Greece 
of  the  Hellenes"  says:  "The  Greeks  would  seem  to  have  assimi- 
lated to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  Christian  nation  the  heathen 
festivals  and  observances  of  their  ancestors  and  the  classical  'genii 
loci'  have  in  many  instances  only  slightly  changed  their  names. "^^^ 

Allinson  points  out  numerous  parallels  in  earlier  and  present 
Greek  religion.  It  would  seem  as  if  there  had  been  a  studied  effort 
to  make  the  transition  from  paganism  to  Christianity  as  easy  as 
possible  so  that  the  change  might  not  be  too  abrupt.  Byzantine 
churches  replace  the  ancient  shrines  on  the  same  site.  The  cult  of 
Dionysus  has  been  skilfully  transformed  into  that  of  St.  Dionysius 
in  vine-bearing  Naxos.  Shrines  of  Demeter  have  given  place  to 
churches  dedicated  to  St.  Demetrius.*^^  "Numerous  chapels  and 
churches,"  says  Rodd,  "are  built  on  foundations  and  with  materials 
of  early  pagan  temples  and  the  saint  to  whom  they  are  dedicated 
has  as  it  were  by  compromise  in  the  struggle  between  Paganism  and 
Christianity  inherited  the  miraculous  power  attributed  to  the  deity 

38 


he  superseded."^^®  Lawson  points  out  how  St.  Elias  the  prophet, 
whose  chapels  crown  countless  hilltops,  is  successor  to  Helios  the 
sun.^3^  There  still  lingers,  especially  among  the  peasantry,  a  belief 
in  "genii,"  "lamias"  sirens,  "nereids"  and  "the  fates."i^« 

Persistence  of  ancient  custom  runs  through  every  department  of 
Greek  life.  "Relics  of  ancient  faith  and  superstitions,"  says  Ser- 
geant, "of  pantheism  and  the  heroology  of  two  thousand  years  ago 
survive  in  the  traditions  of  the  Greeks  of  to-day."^** 

The  common  things  of  every  day  afford  abundant  instances  where 
old  customs  have  lived  on  with  wonderful  tenacity.  Especially  is 
this  true  in  regard  to  the  marriage  and  funeral  customs.  The 
crowning  of  the  bride  and  groom  with  circlets  in  the  marriage  ser- 
vice is  a  survival  of  ancient  Greek  ceremony .^^^ 

Every  traveler  in  Greece  will  note  the  funeral  procession  with 
the  corpse  borne  uncovered  in  the  casket  to  the  grave.  Rodd  de- 
scribes it  in  this  way :  "First  walks  a  bearer  with  the  coffin  lid 
carried  erect,  covered  with  black  velvet  or  white  silk,  with  decora- 
tions of  purple  muslin,  flowers  and  tinsel.  Boys  carrying  the  cross 
and  banners  of  the  church  follow.  Behind  these  come  the  priests 
in  bright  robes  and  one  or  two  professional  mourners  who  sing  a 
sort  of  low  wailing  lamentation,  while  in  front  of  the  friends  and 
relatives,  the  coffin  open  with  the  corpse  exposed,  propped  up  on  a 
pillow,  dressed  as  for  a  festival,  is  carried  by  four  or  six  bearers/ 
This  custom,  now  falling  into  disuse  in  Athens,  carries  us  back  to 
pre-Christian  Greece.  Solon  ordered  the  exposure  of  the  corpse 
as  a  precaution  against  foul  play.  In  the  "Frogs"  of  Aristophanes, 
Dionysus  conveniently  comes  across  a  corpse  in  the  street  and  seeks 
to  strike  a  bargain  by  which  the  corpse  will  bear  some  luggage  to 

the  underworld.  »     , .    ,        xi. 

"In  Macedonia,  Thrace  and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  there 
is  still  a  survival  of  Charon's  obol.  There  is  evidence  that  up  to 
recent  times  this  custom  prevailed  in  European  Greece.  The  Greek 
Church  long  waged  unsuccessful  warfare  against  this  tenacious 

superstition."^** 

The  author  of  "When  I  Was  a  Boy  in  Greece"  says :  I  remem- 
ber the  funeral  of  my  grandfather,  and  the  noble  pale  head  and 
gray  beard  raised  by  pillows  could  be  seen  by  all  the  crowd  as  he 
was  borne  along.    Before  his  body  left  the  house  I  heard  my  mother 

39 


ask  my  father  for  a  piece  of  money,  which  she  put  in  the  pocket  of 
my  grandfather.  I  was  greatly  surprised  and  asked  her  why  she 
did  this.  She  told  me  that  the  dead  man  would  be  ferried  across  a 
dark  river  and  the  money  was  to  pay  Charon  who  rowed  the  dead 
across  to  Hades,  and  that  if  my  grandfather  did  not  have  the  money 
he  would  remain  uneasily  there  till  somebody  paid  for  him.  Of 
course  as  a  child  I  believed  all  my  mother  told  me,  and  then  later 
on  when  I  went  to  school  and  learned  about  Charon  and  his  obol 
and  the  belief  of  the  ancient  Greeks  I  marvelled  at  the  old  custom 
still  existing  among  us  which  the  Christian  religion  has  not  altered 
at  all.  In  modern  Greece  we  call  him  Charos.  At  one  time  he 
appears  as  the  ferryman  who  carries  the  dead  across  to  Hades  and 
again  he  is  the  Angel  of  Death.  There  is  much  beautiful  poetry 
and  many  weird  stories  about  him  in  Greece  and  the  Greek  Macedo- 
nian villages.  "^^'^ 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  familiar  survivals  is  the  "swal- 
low song."  On  the  first  day  of  March  Athenian  boys  carry  a 
wooden  image  of  a  swallow  from  door  to  door,  singing  a  demand 
for  cakes  and  tarts.  This  custom  has  an  unbroken  continuity  with 
the  past,  for  among  the  remains  of  Greek  lyric  poetry  there  is  a 
swallow  song  sung  by  the  boys  of  Rhodes  from  house  to  house,  de- 
manding presents  for  the  glad  news  of  the  return  of  spring.  The 
lines  that  have  come  down  from  Athenaeus  may  be  thus  translated : 

She  is  here,  she  is  here,  the  swallow. 
Fair  seasons  bringing,  fair  years  to  follow. 

Her  belly  is  white 

Her  back  black  as  night. 

The  swallow  is  here. 

From  your  rich  house 

Roll  forth  to  us 

Tarts,  wine  and  cheese. 

Or  if  not  these 

Oatmeal  and  barley  cake 

The  swallow  deigns  to  take. 


40 


The  song  sung  to-day  by  the  Greek  boys  bears  a  striking  similar- 
ity. Rodd  has  transcribed  a  few  lines  of  the  ancient  and  modern 
for  comparison.^*^    The  ancient  song  reads : 

fXe^  ^Xee  xeXtdwv,   kaXd^  &pa^ 

ayooca  kaiX  kaXobg  ivtauTov^ 

kit\  yaaripa  Xeukd  ko-Tii  v<oTa  fiiXaiva 

Compare  with  this  the  song  as  sung  to-day : 

^p0£v  TjpOt  xeXi86va 
^p0£  kt  aXXr)  fieXiTjdova 

kddrjffe  kai  XdXrjffe 

kai  yXokd  keXddrjffe 

This  persistence  of  ancient  habits  and  modes  of  thought  is  char- 
acteristic of  every  phase  of  Hellenic  life,  and  because  religion  is 
so  deeply  rooted  in  Greek  life  it  naturally  offers  no  exception  to 
the  sweep  of  this  principle.  Many  old  rites  live  on  in  the  new  faith 
and  the  mental  attitude  of  the  people  toward  religion  strikingly 
reproduces  that  of  the  ancients.  The  content  of  religion  has  changed 
but  the  mental  attitude  in  its  salient  features  remains  the  same.  In 
both  classic  and  modern  religion  we  have  certain  common  elements : 

1.  The  close  identification  of  religion  and  nationality. 

2.  The  tendency  to  subordinate  the  mystical  personal  aspect  to 

the  social  political. 

3.  A  democratic  outlook  which  has  effectually  curbed  sacerdotal- 
ism and  priest  craft  and  given  the  lay  element  an  important  influ- 
ence. 

4.  An  attitude  of  tolerance  which  has  made  religious  persecu- 
tions and  religious  wars  unknown  in  the  history  of  Greece. 

The  student  of  organic  evolution  traces  the  development  of  the 
organism  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  notes  the  slightest  diverg- 
ence in  the  life  stages  of  individuals,  and  beneath  infinite  variation 
discovers  fundamental  agreements  in  type  and  structure  which  point 
to  common  ancestry.  Thus  we  have  sought  to  compare  the  modem 
Greeks  with  the  ancient  and  to  trace  the  survival  of  certain  charac- 
teristic attitudes  and  tendencies  in  political  and  individual  life. 

We  now  ask  further.  Does  the  same  social  heredity  find  illustra- 
tion in  the  Greeks  in  America?     Greek  immigration  has  assumed 

41 


such  large  proportions  that  there  is  ample  field  for  investigation, 
but  in  drawing  our  inferences  we  must  use  caution  because  there 
has  not  been  time  for  the  play  of  all  forces  to  make  itself  felt. 
We  are  accustomed  to  represent  America  as  the  melting  pot  of 
nations.  Our  system  of  education  tends  to  weld  together  diverse 
peoples,  stripping  them  of  national  peculiarities.  We  cannot  under- 
take to  predict  with  any  certainty  what  future  effect  American  life 
will  have  upon  the  Greeks.  Another  generation  of  Greek  life  in  the 
United  States  may  necessitate  revision  and  reversal  of  some  of  our 
conclusions.  At  present  social  heredity  is  strong.  Bearing  in  mind 
the  limitation  imposed  on  us  by  the  comparatively  short  duration  of 
this  immigration,  we  shall  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  Greek  in 
America. 


42 


PART   III. 

The  settlement  of  the  Greek  in  America  is  very  recent.  In  1848 
only  one  Greek  is  reported  as  arriving  in  New  York.  In  1858  there 
were  two  Greeks.  In  the  seventeen  years  beginning  with  1847  the 
total  number  of  Greeks  entering  the  country  was  seventy-seven.  In 
1886  the  consul  to  Greece  reports  that  there  is  no  emigration  from 
Greece  to  the  United  States  or  any  other  country.  In  1900  the 
total  number  of  Greeks  in  the  United  States  was  nine  thousand. 
In  ten  years  the  number  increased  to  one  hundred  thousand.  In  one 
year,  1907,  the  number  of  Greeks  entering  this  country  was  46,283. 
These  official  figures  of  the  U.  S.  Immigration  Department  will 
afford  an  idea  of  the  astonishing  growth  of  Greek  immigration  in 
recent  years. 

Greek  Immigration  to  U.  S.  by  Decades. 

1869—  8  1879—    21  1889—  158 

1870—  23  1880—    23  1890—  524 

1871—  11  1881—    19  1891—1105 

1872—  12  1882—  126  1892—  615 

1873—  23  1883—    73  1893—1131 

1874—  36  1884—    37  1894—1351 

1875—  25  1885—  172  1895—  605 

1876—  19  1886-  104  1896—2175 

1877—  24  1887—  313  1897—  571 

1878—  16  1888—  782  1898—2339 

1879—  21  1889—  158  1899—2333 

Greek  Immigration  for  10  Years,  Showing  Proportion  of 

Greeks  from  Greece  Proper. 

ToUl  No.  of  Gieeb  From  Kingdom  of  Greece 

1900 3,773  3,771 

1901 5,919  5,910 

1902 8,115  8,104 

1903 14,376  14,090 

43 


1904 12,625  12,515 

1905 12,144  10,515 

1906 23,127  19,489 

1907 46,283  36,580 

1908 28,808  21,489 

1909 20,262  14,059 

1910 39,135  26,675 

Neither  religious  persecution  nor  political  oppression  has  been  a 
factor  in  this  emigration.  The  attitude  of  the  Greek  toward  the 
home  land  and  its  administration  is  altogether  different  from  that 
of  the  German  who  came  here  after  1848,  or  the  Pole  who  fled 
after  the  failure  of  the  insurrection  of  1830,  or  the  Hungarian  dis- 
appointed over  the  collapse  of  the  revolution.  These  were  out  of 
sympathy  with  political  conditions  at  home,  bitter  and  hostile. 
The  Greek,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  ardent  patriot,  in  full  accord 
with  the  politics  and  religion  of  the  fatherland.  Even  the  Greeks 
under  Turkish  domination,  who  are  numerically  a  small  part  of  the 
immigrants,  are  rarely  driven  out  by  active  persecution.^*"^  The 
attitude  of  the  Greek  toward  home  movements  was  clearly  illus- 
trated in  the  recent  Balkan  outbreak,  when  scores  of  men  all  over 
this  country  returned  to  fight  on  behalf  of  Hellas,  cheerfully,  gladly, 
eagerly,  at  great  personal  and  financial  sacrifice. 

The  motive  for  Greek  immigration  is  to  be  sought  in  the  adven- 
turesome, roving  spirit  of  the  people,  in  the  same  causes  which 
were  operative  in  early  times  to  make  the  Greeks  bold  colonizers. 
In  1891  emigration  received  an  impetus  from  the  failure  of  the 
currant  market,  which  struck  at  the  heart  of  the  national  indus- 
tries.^*^ Economic  necessity  reinforced  the  natural  "wanderlust." 
Greece  is  the  source  of  the  world's  currant  supply.  The  main  ship- 
ping port  is  Patras.  Visiting  there  in  1912,  I  found  the  wharves 
literally  filled  with  cases  stacked  high  for  loading  on  every  ship  of 
Christendom. 

Every  section  of  the  kingdom  has  contributed  to  the  emigrant 
stream — the  islands,  the  Peloponnese  and  Central  Greece.  In  1903 
Consul  McGinley  reports  that  thousands  from  Sparta  have  sought 
the  United  States  and  some  villages  have  sent  all  their  able  bodied 
men.  Married  Greeks  migrated  to  this  country  without  their 
wives  and  children.^*^    In  1905  Greek  women  began  to  arrive.    In 

44 


a  table  showing  the  sex  distribution  of  immigrants  for  eleven  years 
beginning  with  1899  we  find  95.4  per  cent,  males  to  4.6  per  cent. 

females.^^® 

The  immigrant  has  penetrated  every  part  of  this  country.    Large 
numbers  are  located  in  the  metropolitan  centres — New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, Boston.     He  is  in  the  Ohio  Valley.    When  I  recently  vis- 
ited Cincinnati,  I  noted  a  large  Greek  lodging  house  opposite  the 
Central  Union  depot.     The  disused  Franklin  Bank  on  Third  street 
west  of  Main  has  been  secured  for  a  church,  a  singularly  fitting 
arrangement,  because  the  building  is  modelled  after  the  Parthenon, 
with  a  portico  of  Doric  columns.     Westward  to  Chicago  and  the 
towns  of  Illinois  and  Iowa  the  immigrant  procession  has  moved. 
In  the  larger  cities  Greek  youth  are  found  among  the  patrons  of 
the  gymnasium  and  swimming  pools  at  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.     Greeks 
and  Macedonians  are  fond  of  wrestling  and  boxing.     In  Kansas 
City  and  Omaha  meets  are  arranged  regularly  through  the  win- 
ter.i^^    Speaking  of  the  Greeks  in  Sheboygan,  Wis.,  Rev.  A.  Parker 
Curtiss  writes  me :     "Of  all  the  foreign  element  here,  the  Greeks 
seem  the  most  respected  next  to  the  Germans.     The  men  mostly 
live  in  boarding  houses.     In  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  are  few 
women  and  few  homes  the  Greeks  as  a  class  are  not  regarded  as 
immoral."     Rev.  Joseph  W.  Gunn,  of  Ely,  Nevada,  writes  me  that 
the  Greek  population  in  that  district  is  diminishing,  as  the  mining 
companies  are  employing  other  laborers  more  largely.     They  have 
met  discouragements  in  maintaining  their  church.    About  a  year  and 
a  half  ago  they  secured  a  priest,  but  he  grew  very  homesick  and 
went  back  to  Athens  in  less  than  three  months.    They  own  a  small 
chapel  at  McGill,  fourteen  miles  down  the  valley,  but  no  building  at 
Ely.    Well-to-do  Greeks  now  send  to  Salt  Lake  City  for  a  priest. 

There  are  strong  Greek  settlements  in  the  south,  in  Savannah, 
Charleston,  New  Orleans.  In  Birmingham  they  number  nine  hun- 
dred, most  of  whom  are  naturalized  citizens  and  take  great  interest 
in  politics.  The  Nevada  desert,  the  Pacific  coast,  the  Gulf  coast  of 
Florida,  are  centres  of  Greek  settlement,  while  scattered  sons  of 
Hellas  are  found  everywhere.  In  1912  I  came  across  a  Greek  candy 
store  in  the  little  town  of  Easton,  Maryland.  A  list  of  organized 
congregations  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  will  serve  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  widespread  geographical  distribution  of  the  Greek 

population  in  the  United  States. 

45 


PLACES  WHERE  GREEK  ORTHODOX  CHURCHES  HAVE 

BEEN  ORGANIZED. 


Atlanta,  Ga.    181  Central  Ave.    "Annunciation." 
Biddeford,  Me.    7  Alfred  St.    "St.  Demetrios." 
Bridgeport,  Conn.    Main  St.    "Holy  Trinity." 
Buffalo.  N.  Y.    Oak  St.    "Annunciation." 
Boston,  Mass.    46  Winchester  St.    "Annunciation." 

Tyler  and  Kneeland  Sts.    "Transfiguration." 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.    60  Lawrence  St.,  near  Johnson.    "St.  Constantine." 
Birmingham,  Ala.    301  S.  19th  St.    "Holy  Trinity." 
Baltimore,  Md.    Corner  Homewood  Ave.  and  Chase  St.    "Annunciation." 
Cleveland,  Ohio.    "Annunciation." 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.    124  E.  Third  St.    "Holy  Trinity." 
Canton,  Ohio.    E.  Fourth  St.    "St.  Haralambos." 
Charleston,  S.  C.    St.  Philip  St.  cor.  Fishburne.    "Holy  Trinity." 
Columbus,  Ohio.    Meets  in  Masonic  Temple,  under  Rev.  Nicholas  Velonis, 

priest. 
Chicago,  111.     1101  S.  Peoria  St.    "Holy  Trinity." 

6100  Michigan  Ave.    "St.  Constantine." 

LaSalle  near  Oak.    "Annunciation." 
Dover,  N.  H.    7  Main  St.    "Annunciation." 
Detroit,  Mich.    80  Broadway.    "Annunciation." 
Denver,  Colo.    37th  Ave.  and  Lafayette  St.    "Theotokos." 
Ely,  Nevada. 

Galveston,  Texas.    "Constantine  and  Helena." 
Haverhill,  Mass.    19  Walnut  St.    "Holy  Apostles." 
Holyoke,  Mass. 

IndianapoUs,  Ind.    llVz  S.  Meridian  St.     "Theotokos." 
Ipswich,  Mass.    Lafayette  Road.    "St.  Mary." 
Kansas  City,  Mo.    510  E.  Fourth  St.    "Annunciation." 
Lynn,  Mass.    20  Pleasant  St.    "St.  George." 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.    1216  San  Julian  St. 
Lowell,  Mass.    Lewis  and  Jefferson  Sts.    "Holy  Trinity." 
Lewiston,  Me.    "Holy  Trinity." 

Minneapolis,  Minn.    Tenth  Ave.  corner  Lake  St.    "Theotokos." 
Manchester,  N.  H.    Pine  and  Merrill  Sts.    "St.  George." 
Moline,  Illinois.    "St.  George." 

46 


Milwaukee,  Wis.    664  Broadway.    "Annunciation." 

Nashua,  N.  H.    50  Ash  St.    "Annunciation." 

Newark,  N.  J.    149  Academy  St.    "St.  Nicholas." 

Norfolk,  Va.    Freemason  and  Cumberland  Sts.    "Annunciation." 

New  York,  N.  Y.     151  E.  72d  St.     "Holy  Trinity." 

310  W.  54th  St.    "Annunciation." 
New  Orleans,  La.    1220  Dorgenois.    "Holy  Trinity." 

Founded  in  1867  by  Greek  cotton  merchants,  this  was  the  first 
Greek  Church  in  America,  and  the  minutes  of  the  administrative 
council  have  long  been  kept  in  English. 

Omaha,  Neb.     Sixteenth  and  Martha  Sts.    "St.  Johns." 

Pueblo,  Colo.     Spruce  corner  Summit  Ave. 

Portland,  Ore.    E.  17th  and  Taggart.    "Holy  Trinity." 

Providence,  R.  I.    333  Smith  St.    "Annunciation." 

Peabody,  Mass.    Walnut  St. 

Philadelphia.  Pa.    745  S.  Twelfth  St.    "St.  Evangelist." 

Pensacola,  Fla.     "Annunciation." 

Pittsburg,  Pa.    97  Fulton  St.    "Annunciation." 

Reading,  Pa.    Chestnut  &  Lenon  Sts.    "Constantine  and  Helena." 

Springfield,  Mass.    36  Auburn  St.    "St.  George." 

Savannah,  Ga.    Duffy  and  Barnard  Sts.    "St.  Paul." 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.    25  Clinton  St.    "St.  George." 

Seattle,  Wash.    "St.  Spiridion." 

Somersworth,  N.  H.    40  Washington  St.    "Theotokos." 

Sheboygan,  Wis.    S.  Tenth  St.    "St.  Spiridion." 

San  Francisco,  Cal.     Seventh  St.     "Holy  Trinity." 

St.  Louis,  Mo.    1901  Morgan  St.    "Holy  Trinity." 

Stamford,  Conn.    Temporary  quarters  under  Rev.  G.  Calogiannis,  Priest. 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.    439  W.  Fourth  St.  south. 

Toledo,  Ohio.    631  St.  Clair  St.    "Holy  Trinity." 

Tarpon  Springs,  Fla.     "St.  Nicholas." 

Vandergrift,  Penna.    Meets  in  Hungers  Hall  under  Rev.  Basil  Avramopoulos. 

Waterloo,  Iowa.    512  Bluff  St.    "St.  Demetrios." 

Washington,  D.  C.    619  Sixth  St..  N.  W.    "St.  Sophia." 

Wheeling,  W.  Va.    "Apocalypsis." 


47 


Not  only  has  the  Greek  found  his  way  to  every  section  of  the 
land,  he  has  entered  every  industry.  If  you  smoke  cigarettes  your 
"Turkish  Trophies"  bear  the  name  "Anargyros,"  the  Greek  founder 
of  the  enterprise.  Stephanos  of  Philadelphia  and  Melachrinos  of 
New  York  are  well  known  names  in  the  tobacco  industry.  If  you 
patronize  the  confectionery  you  will  likely  find  the  sign  "Olympia" 
or  "Marathon"  or  "Athens,"  which  betokens  the  Hellenic  proprie- 
tor who  in  some  places  has  gained  a  monopoly  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  Plato  placed  a  ban  on  Athenian  confections  in  his  ideal  republic. 
The  bootblack  parlors  are  largely  in  the  hands  of  Greeks.  The 
dusty  streets  of  Athens  have  made  the  Greek  lad  expert  in  this  line. 
As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Aristophanes  the  dicast  was  on  the  look- 
out for  a  sponge  and  a  basin  of  oil  mixed  with  pitch  for  his  dusty 
shoes.  If  you  purchase  a  bouquet  of  flowers,  the  shop  will  very 
likely  be  owned  by  a  Greek.  The  late  Mayor  Gaynor  was  a  regular 
patron  of  a  Greek  florist  in  Brooklyn.  Greek  names  are  familiar 
everywhere.     John  Economopoulos  is  well  known  to  visitors  at 

Coney  Island. 

Peddling,  shoe  shining,  restaurant  keeping,  milling,  mining,  have 
offered  avenues  to  Greek  enterprise.  Some  of  the  finest  spinning  in 
America  is  done  by  Greeks  at  Lowell,  Mass.  The  sponge  diving  of 
Florida  is  entirely  in  Greek  hands.  There  are  also  lawyers,  physi- 
cians, dentists. 

f  When  a  body  of  Greeks  settles  in  one  place,  the  first  step  is  the 
organization  of  the  community  ^otvtiriyy^  an  association  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  and  maintaining  the  Greek  religious  observ- 
ances. The  community  is  made  up  of  all  the  Greeks  in  a  district, 
with  officers,  executive  committee  and  terms  of  membership.  In 
1913  there  were  fifty-five  of  these  communities.  Their  first  care  is 
to  make  provision  for  the  church,  which  is  administered  in  a  thor- 
oughgoing democratic  way.  The  power  is  vested  in  laymen.  The 
priest  is  engaged  and  discharged  in  the  same  way  as  an  office  boy  or 
clerk.  His  position  is  distinctly  a  subordinate  one.  This  in  itself 
would  seem  a  reversion  to  type.  In  our  study  of  the  ancient  reli- 
gion we  noted  that  the  priests  were  elected  and  might  be  changed 
and  their  function  was  the  due  regulation  of  the  sacrifices,  etc. 
When  the  Greek  priest  in  Milwaukee  was  asked  for  the  use  of  a 
church  room  for  a  meeting  of  a  group  of  Greeks  he  referred  the 

48 


matter  to  the  head  of  the  community.  He  had  no  power  in  the 
premises.^^^  The  church  plays  a  big  role  in  the  fife  of  the  Greeks 
in  America.  It  is  an  important  bond  of  union,  makes  for  enthusi- 
asm and  loyalty,  stimulates  religion  and  keeps  alive  the  interest  in 
national  history  and  traditions.  "The  scene  around  a  Greek  church 
on  festive  days,"  says  Robert,  "is  worth  witnessing.  The  spirit  of 
worship  in  these  people  is  a  phenomenon  that  cannot  be  found  else- 
where in  any  community."^^^  The  Rev.  A.  P.  Curtiss,  giving  his 
impressions  of  the  Church  in  Sheboygan,  Wis.,  writes:  "Their  de- 
votion is  touching.  A  freedom  that  at  first  looks  like  irreverence 
seems  to  be  a  real  lack  of  self-consciousness  and  is  very  inspiring 
after  one  is  used  to  it.  The  priest  is  a  monk  and  has  a  very  good 
influence  over  the  men.  He  reads  English  very  well  but  does  not 
speak  it  readily." 

The  Greek  Orthodox  Church  is  a  new  element  in  American  reli- 
gious life.  With  three  or  four  exceptions,  the  congregations  have 
come  into  existence  within  the  past  decade.  In  some  places  an 
existing  building  has  been  rented  or  purchased  and  remodelled  for 
ecclesiastical  purposes.  In  others  new  churches  have  been  erected 
after  Byzantine  models.  So  recent  is  the  accession  of  the  Greek 
Church  to  the  family  of  American  religious  organizations  that  it  is 
as  yet  imperfectly  understood.  In  my  endeavor  to  secure  a  list  of 
churches  in  the  United  States  I  encountered  many  difficulties.  I 
sought  information  at  the  office  of  "Atlantis,"  a  Greek  newspaper 
published  in  New  York.  They  knew  of  no  list,  but  suggested  that 
I  might  find  valuable  material  in  Helmis'  Greek  American  Guide 
(1915).  This  book,  however,  makes  no  effort  to  give  a  directory 
of  the  churches.  It  mentions  many  of  them  in  an  incidental  way, 
but  omits  entirely  some  of  the  largest  and  most  influential  congre- 
gations. My  attention  was  called  to  a  list  in  the  Living  Church 
Annual  and  Churchman's  Almanac  (1915),  but  I  found  it  incom- 
plete in  its  omission  of  a  number  of  churches  known  to  me  which  I 
myself  had  visited  in  the  course  of  my  study  of  the  Greek  people. 
When  I  undertook  to  verify  the  list  by  reference  to  the  respective 
city  directories  I  discovered  further  inaccuracies.  The  figures  of 
membership  are  suspiciously  even  and  regular  and  possess  doubtful 
value  for  a  scientific  study,  and  out  of  a  list  of  some  forty  priests 
less  than  two  dozen  are  correctly  given. 

49 


:.ltA±!^*i':i 


The  compilers  of  the  city  directories  are  evidently  in  perplexity. 
A  Birmingham,  Ala.,  Directory  (1913)  classifies  the  Greek  Church 
under  Roman  Catholic,  a  classification  which  Orthodox  Greeks 
strenuously  resent.  A  Detroit,  Mich.,  Directory  (1913)  Hsts  the  Greek 
and  Russian  Churches  under  the  novel  denominational  heading 
"Greek  Evangelist."  A  New  York  Directory  (1915)  invents  the 
equally  amusing  nomenclature  "Hellenic  Easterner  Church."  A  San 
Francisco  Directory  (1915)  lists  the  Greek  Church  under  the  title 
"Evangelical,"  grouping  it  with  four  Protestant  organizations  with 
which  it  has  nothing  in  common.  Boyd's  District  of  Columbia 
Directory  (1915)  accurately  follows  the  technical  classification 
"Eastern  Orthodox"  in  noting  the  Greek  Church  of  St.  Sophia  in 
Washington.  Many  of  the  directories  omit  all  mention  of  the  Greek 
Church.  This  may  be  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  congregations  have 
been  only  recently  organized  and  are  yet  in  an  experimental  stage, 
holding  their  services  in  temporary  quarters  and  possessing  no  fixed 
habitat.  Several  directories  give  the  Greek  Church  no  place  in  the 
list  of  churches  but  name  it  correctly  in  the  body  of  the  book.  The 
term  "Greek  Catholic"  occurs  occasionally  as  a  designation  but  is 
misleading,  because  this  name  has  a  technical  signification  quite  dif- 
ferent, being  applied  to  the  "Uniat"  congregations,  of  which  there  is 
a  growing  number,  wherever  a  Ruthenian  population  has  gathered. 

The  Greek  Church  in  this  country  is  without  a  head.  No  bishop 
has  been  appointed  and  there  is  no  central  body  of  any  kind.  Each 
community  makes  its  own  provision  for  its  religious  needs,  organ- 
izes its  church,  advertises  for  a  priest,  engages  and  dismisses  him  at 
will.  The  clergy  shift  so  constantly  from  point  to  point  that  it  is  a 
hopeless  task  to  secure  an  accurate  list. 

The  Pan  Hellenic  Union  is  the  most  important  Greek  society  in 
America.  Its  membership  extends  throughout  the  whole  country. 
Established  in  1907,  it  suffered  from  factions,  but  now  bids  fair  to 
prosper  and  prove  a  unifying  influence  among  the  sons  of  Hellas  in 
the  new  land.  The  objects,  as  stated  in  the  constitution,  are 
"to  cultivate  the  spirit  of  mutual  aid  and  love  for  their  own 
nationality,  to  instill  veneration  and  affection  for  the  laws  and  insti- 
tutions of  their  adopted  country  and  for  the  cultivation  of  friendly 
relations  between  Greeks  and  American  citizens,  to  teach  the  Eng- 

50 


lish  and  Greek  languages,  to  preserve  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church 
and  to  develop  and  propagate  educational  and  moral  doctrines 
among  the  Greek  compatriots,  to  procure  pecuniary  and  other  aid 
for  members,  to  protect  the  immigrant  and  laborer  and  to  secure 
the  moral  and  material  assistance  of  the  Union  toward  the  great 
needs  of  the  Nation." 

These  objects  well  express  the  ideal  of  the  Greek- American.  He 
is  loyal  to  his  new  home  and  its  institutions,  but  preserves  his  own 
traditions,  language,  religious  faith  and  veneration  for  Hellas. 

The  Greek  newspaper  is  an  important  institution  in  America.  We 
noted  the  large  place  the  press  fills  at  home.  There  are  three  daily 
papers  in  New  York.  "Atlantis"  was  estabUshed  in  1894,  and  a 
little  more  than  a  decade  later  saw  the  appearance  of  the 
"Pan-Hellenic."  The  establishment  of  the  second  was  the  out- 
come of  a  quarrel  between  proprietors.  The  "National  Herald" 
was  started  six  months  ago.  Greek  papers  are  published  in  Bos- 
ton, Lowell,  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  Salt  Lake  City  and  San  Francisco, 
and  they  play  a  vital  and  an  influential  part  in  the  life  of  the  people. 
Probably  no  other  foreign  nationality  amongst  us  publishes  so 
many  papers  in  proportion  to  its  numbers.  "The  Greek  above  all 
men  loves  to  devour  his  newspaper.  If  you  enter  his  place  of 
business  for  a  friendly  chat  and  he  is  reading  his  paper,  you  must 
wait.  This  is  not  discourtesy,  for  the  Greek  is  most  courteous 
of  men.  It  is  habit.  The  newspaper  above  all  else  keeps  him  in 
touch  with  the  fatherland  and  with  his  fellow  countrymen  here.  It 
also  tells  him  of  American  life.  The  Greek  newspapers  contain  the 
happenings  in  Hellas,  especially  the  politics.  Every  Greek  is  a 
well  versed  and  fluent  politician."^^** 

In  a  neighborhood  where  a  colony  of  Greeks  has  settled,  the 
"coffee  house"  plays  an  important  part.  It  stands  in  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  populace  that  the  beer  garden  does  to  the  German.  At 
any  hour,  day  and  night,  you  will  find  groups  of  men  sitting  around 
small  tables,  sipping  black  coffee,  smoking  cigarettes  and  arguing 
vehemently.^^'"'  Here  and  there  on  the  walls  is  a  framed  chromo 
depicting  some  battle  scene,  for  the  people  are  steeped  in  race  his- 
tory and  love  to  dream  of  the  glorious  past  of  Hellas  and  its  even 
greater  future.     They  are  possessed  with  the  "Great  Idea,"^^'^^  the 

51 


\      i 


vision  of  a  Greek  empire  which  shall  reproduce  the  Byzantine  era 

in  extent  and  power. 

The  coffee  house  is  a  distinctively  Hellenic  institution,  introduced 
into  England  as  early  as  1652  at  Baliol  by  Konopios,  a  Cretan.i^' 
The  first  of  the  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  papers  makes  reference  to 
the  "Grecian  Coffee  House"  which  was  in  Devereux  Court.  It  was 
kept  by  Constantine,  a  Greek  who  had  a  new  and  popular  way  of 

preparing  coffee. 

The  coffee  house  is  itself  an  illustration  of  social  heredity.  As 
the  Teuton,  from  the  day  of  Tacitus,  has  been  proverbial  for  the 
love  of  strong  drink,  so  the  Greek  from  Homer's  time  has  been  very 
abstemious.  In  the  Homeric  age,  wine  was  drunk  diluted  with 
water.  Sobriety  is  a  national  trait.  Drunkenness  now,  as  in  ancient 
times,  offends  Greek  taste,  and  is  very  rare  at  home  and  in  this 

country.^^® 

"The  splendid  health  of  the  Greek  soldiers,"  says  Cassavetti,  "is 
due  to  their  extreme  sobriety.  This  was  a  subject  of  remark  during 
the  war  of  1897,  when  the  quickness  with  which  wounds  healed 
astounded  the  foreign  surgeons."^^ 

Fairchild,  comparing  the  immigrant  races  in  regard  to  crimi- 
nality, finds  that  the  German  is  addicted  to  crimes  against  property ; 
the  Irish  and  Scotch  to  drunkenness ;  the  Italian  to  crimes  of  vio- 
lence ;  the  French  and  Polish  immigrants  to  crimes  against  chastity ; 
the  Greek  to  violations  of  corporation  ordinances  and  the  sanitary 
code.^^  The  crimes  of  Greeks  arise  from  a  low  economic  position, 
and  with  the  rise  in  the  economic  scale  the  percentage  of  crime 
declines.^^^ 

In  the  crude  conditions  of  the  western  gangs  of  laborers,  Greeks 
and  Italians  were  found  to  be  the  most  unclean  in  their  living  ar- 
rangements.^^^  Among  the  Chicago  Greeks,  who  are  in  a  more 
stable  economic  position.  Miss  Abbott  found  living  and  sanitary 
conditions  good.^^^  ' 

The  Greeks  have  from  time  to  time  gained  unpleasant  notoriety 
on  account  of  the  "padrone"  system.  "The  shoe  shining  jndustry 
combines  in  marked  degree,"  says  Fairchild,  "the  necessary  elements 
for  the  successful  application  of  this  system — small  capital,  cheap 
unskilled  labor,  close  supervision.  The  Greek  race  is  well  adapted 
to  apply  it  to  an  extreme  extent,  partly  from  natural  aptitude,  partly 

52 


from  custom  and  training.  For  the  system  in  its  main  outlines  has 
long  been  familiar  in  Greece,  though  some  of  its  most  unfortunate 
aspects  do  not  develop  there."^^* 

Having  introduced  the  Greek  in  this  general  way,  let  me  speak 
more  specifically  of  my  impressions  of  the  larger  communities. 

Let  us  begin  with  New  York.  In  1885  a  Greek  florist  established 
himself  on  Columbus  avenue,  and  a  restaurant  was  opened  on 
Roosevelt  street.  The  centres  of  trade  to-day  are  on  Madison  street, 
where  the  visitor  will  note  Greek  signs  and  Greek  coffee  houses. 
During  the  past  few  years  Greek  stores  have  come  to  Sixth  avenue 
in  the  vicinity  of  30th  street,  but  there  is  no  quarter  of  the  city 
which  is  in  any  pronounced  way  a  "Greek"  quarter.  In  1904  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  established  on  East  72nd  street. 
Its  large  congregation  is  drawn  from  every  section  and  represents 
varying  degrees  of  culture.  The  church  itself,  unpretentious  in 
exterior,  is  rich  within.  Marble,  mosaic  and  painting  represent  the 
gifts  of  prosperous  members.  On  the  principal  religious  and  civic 
occasions  the  services  are  celebrated  on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence 
and  well-to-do   Greeks   from   neighboring  Jersey   suburbs   are   in 

attendance. 

A  second  congregation  has  been  organized  as  a  result  of  some 
dissension.  It  has  acquired  a  handsome  Byzantine  building  on 
West  54th  street.  Robert  thinks  the  jealousies  and  rivalries  of  the 
leaders  are  defeating  the  best  interests  of  the  people.  "There  are 
twenty  thousand  Greeks  in  New  York,"  he  says,  "and  yet  they  have 
no  organization  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  Greek  immigrant 
on  Ellis  Island.  The  reason  for  this  lack  is  found  in  the  jealousies 
of  leaders  who  are  at  daggers'  points  and  malign  each  other  in  ^ 
irrational  and  a  foolish  manner.  The  result  is  that  no  immigrant  is 
more  subject  to  insult  and  wrong.  There  is  no  representative  to 
look  after  his  interest.  The  Greek  colony  in  the  metropolis  is  hope- 
lessly divided  because  the  leaders  cannot  agree.  The  quarrels  enter 
into  business  and  social  relations  and  have  penetrated  the  sacred  pre- 
cincts of  the  spiritual  life.  Two  churches  represent  the  division 
found  in  the  community.  "^^^ 

The  tendency  in  New  York  is  to  scatter  over  a  large  area  rather 
than  to  congregate  in  one  district.  Families  adopt  American  ways. 
Children  attend  the  public  schools.    But  the  recurrence  of  ecclest- 

53 


h\ 


/ 


w 


#1 


astical  festivals  or  the  celebration  of  Greek  independence  day  attests 
the  marvelous  loyalty  with  which  they  cling  to  national  and  religious 

customs. 

We  turn  to  the  Chicago  community.  The  first  church  was  erected 
on  Johnson  street  in  1898.  It  is  not  at  all  imposing  in  its  architec- 
ture. When  I  visited  Chicago,  in  1911,  a  costly  new  church  of 
Byzantine  type  was  in  course  of  construction  on  La  Salle  street 
near  Oak,  a  long  distance  from  the  original  Greek  quarter.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Greek  population  is  scattering  over 
a  wide  area— a  fact  which  is  true  in  our  large  centers. 

The  Greek  quarter  in  Chicago  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  South 
Halsted  street,  near  Hull  House,  whose  workers  have  met  with 
great  success  among  the  people.  "One  of  the  pleasures  of  a  visit  to 
Hull  House,"  says  Robert,  "is  the  sight  of  the  Greeks  performing 
the  plays  of  old  Hellas.  The  men  who  took  part  were  common 
people  from  the  common  walks  of  life,  but  when  they  took  to  the 
stage  and  became  interpreters  of  the  genius  of  Greece  they  became 
dignified  and  masterful."^^^ 

My  personal  observations  can  add  nothing  to  the  ample  descrip- 
tion by  Grace  Abbott,  who  made  a  clear,  systematic,  painstaking 
study  of  the  Greek  population  by  a  house  to  house  canvass  of  the 

neighborhood.^^''  3 

The  occupations  are  as  varied  as  peddlar,  bootblack,  fruit  dealer, 
restaurant  proprietor,  waiter,  florist,  confectioner.  In  this  last  they 
have  almost  a  monopoly  in  Chicago. 

The  women  do  not  work  outside  the  home.  They  are  not  found 
in  sweat  shops.  Fixed  tradition  forbids  their  entrance  into  indus- 
try. The  lad  supports  his  sister  until  she  is  settled  in  life.  The 
women  are  good  housewives.  Their  homes  are  clean  and  comfort- 
able. The  women  from  southern  Europe  generally  avoid  domestic 
service  outside  of  their  own  homes.  This  is  in  contrast  to  the 
earlier  immigration  from  Ireland,  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  and 
lies  at  the  root  of  our  servant  problem.  It  is  stated  that  girls  in 
Greece  do  not  attend  school  in  large  numbers  because  many  parents 
think  education  unfits  them  for  domestic  \iie}^  The  Greek  chil- 
dren in  Chicago  are  bright  and  learn  quickly.  In  the  Jones  school 
there  were  81  Greeks  out  of  252. 

The  Greek  in  Chicago  is  regarded  as  a  shrewd  business  man.    The 

54 


new  comer  will  take  any  job  that  comes  to  hand.  Usually  he  will 
join  a  gang  in  construction  work,  but  only  until  he  accumulates  a 
little  money,  when  he  launches  out  in  a  small  way  in  independent 

enterprise. 

They  are  scrupulously  loyal  to  their  religion.  On  Good  Friday 
night  on  South  Halsted  street  the  stores  are  draped  in  purple  and 
black  and  at  midnight  a  procession  marches  through  the  street  sing- 
ing and  carrying  gleaming  tapers.  "A  Greek  in  Chicago  left  the 
church  and  was  employed  by  one  of  the  denominations  to  do  mis- 
sionary work  among  his  countrymen.  His  fellows  called  him  devil, 
traitor,  betrayer.  His  influence  was  gone.  A  Greek  explained: 
Trotestant  is  all  right  for  you.  You  were  born  a  Protestant  but  he 
was  born  a  Greek.'  A  Greek  is  born  to  his  religion  just  as  he  is  to 
his  nationality."^^^  To  forsake  the  church  is  identical  with  for- 
saking the  nation.  The  Greeks  offer  a  difficult  field  to  religious 
agencies  that  seek  to  proselyte  them. 

The  Chicago  Greek  has  a  fine  record  for  thrift  and  rarely  becomes 
a  burden  to  the  community.  The  Bureau  of  Charities  reports  few 
Greek  applicants  and  the  Municipal  Lodging  House  shelters  few 
Greeks.  It  is  true  of  the  Greek  generally  that  only  in  very  rare 
instances  does  he  appeal  for  public  relief .^^® 

Lowell,  Massachusetts,  presents  a  Greek  colony  concentrated  in 
one  section.  The  presence  of  a  foreign  population  is  evident.  I 
visited  Lowell  in  the  spring  of  1914.  Along  Market  street,  begin- 
ning at  Button,  the  Hellenic  character  is  very  pronounced.  With 
almost  no  exception  the  stores  are  Greek  for  several  blocks.  I  was 
impressed  with  the  extent  of  the  Greek  quarter  and  the  multiplicity 
and  diversity  of  interests  represented.  I  became  very  much  inter- 
ested in  the  types  of  people.  Some  of  them  could  speak  English 
quite  intelligently.  The  purchase  of  an  apple  at  the  fruit  store  was 
an  excuse  to  draw  the  proprietor  into  conversation.  The  purchase 
of  some  Greek  post  cards  led  to  an  interesting  interview  with  a 
Greek  who  had  lived  in  Alexandria.  I  sipped  a  cup  of  coffee  at  the 
"Venizelos,"  where  I  was  an  object  of  wonder  and  comment  to  a 
dozen  men  grouped  around  the  tables,  but  as  none  of  them  seemed 
to  have  much  mastery  of  English  and  my  own  vocabulary  was 
limited  to  xaXr^fjiipa  and  t\  xd^eig,  we  made  little  progress  toward 
that  communication  and  acquaintance  that  Giddings  counts  indis- 
pensable to  socialization.  .^ 

55 


.t 


Walking  along  Market  street  we  take  note  of  some  of  the  larger 
and  more  important  stores : 


311. 
360. 
389. 
391. 
393. 


437. 
444. 
450. 


457. 


Greek  Printer. 

Meteora  the  Grocer. 

The  Nausika  Steam  Laundry.    (Note  the  Homeric  name.) 

Printing  Office. 

Hotel  Venizelos.  (The  great  statesman  figures  prommentlym 
the  names  of  hotels  and  restaurants.  I  noticed  a 
"Venizelos"  coffee  house  in  Tampa,  Florida.) 

Coulis  Greek-American  Shoe  Repairing. 

Greek  Stationery  Store. 

The  Acropolis  Cafe.  (I  noted  a  Greek  woman  and  baby  at 
one  of  the  upper  windows.  She  had  a  colored  shawl 
over  her  head  and  presented  a  typical  peasant  face.) 

The  Byzantine  Cafe— Demaras. 


463.  The  Olympian  Cafe— Spyropoulos. 

469.  The  Athens  Coffee  House. 

476.  Vozeolas,  the  Druggist. 

508.  Lamprinocas,  the  Grocer. 

523.  Alexakos,  the  Grocer,  whose  sign  is  ornamented  with  Greek 

and  American  flags  painted  in  gay  colors. 

575.  Mavrakis,  the  Barber. 

605.  Stefankos,  Common  Victualer. 

609.  Katramados,  Grocer. 

The  foreign  aspect  of  the  neighborhood  is  intensified  at  Jefferson 
street  when  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  gold  dome  of  Holy  Trinity 
Greek  Church.  This  is  an  expensive  edifice  of  great  beauty  and 
stands  out  in  contrast  to  the  ramshackle  buildings  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

The  life  of  the  compact  population  reflects  in  general  the  charac- 
teristics that  were  noted  in  Chicago.  The  Greeks  are  independent, 
never  relying  on  public  charity.  There  is  little  drunkenness.  They 
are  fond  of  theatricals  and  an  amateur  company  renders  ten  modern 
Greek  plays  each  year.'*^^ 

Many  Greeks  find  employment  in  the  mills.  The  mill  agents' 
greatest  complaints  are  on  the  score  of  their  factiousness  and  fond- 
ness for  exploiting  one  another.  The  factious  spirit  is  especially  in 
evidence.  It  crops  out  everywhere.  They  are  constantly  coming 
into  court  with  their  dissensions.  Greek  employees  form  small 
groups  in  constant  altercation  with  one  another. ^"^^ 

56 


By  far  the  most  striking  Greek  colony  in  America  is  at  Tarpon 
Springs  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida.  Here  the  Ufe  and  customs  of 
the  homeland  are  closely  reproduced. 

Tarpon  Springs  is  the  largest  sponge  center  in  the  world.  This 
industry  keeps  more  than  a  thousand  men  employed  all  year  and  has 
over  a  hundred  vessels  operating  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  finan- 
cial returns  run  into  millions  of  dollars  annually.  There  are  a  dozen 
large  packing  houses.  The  wholesale  houses  of  London,  New  York 
and  Chicago,  as  well  as  the  independent  operators  and  buyers,  are 

represented. 

For  a  long  time  sponge  diving  has  played  a  part  in  the  industries 
of  Greece.  For  half  a  century  the  sponge  industry  has  been  estab- 
lished at  Aigina.  Other  important  centers  are  Hydra,  Spetsai, 
Trikeri,  Hermione,  Kranidi. 

The  fishing  grounds  are  off  the  coast  of  Tripoli  extending  west  to 
Tunis,  also  on  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  and  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia and  Lipari.  The  divers  range  in  age  from  eighteen  to  forty- 
five  years.^*^^ 

In  May,  1908,  Greek  divers  first  appeared  in  Tarpon  Springs. 
They  were  introduced  into  the  work  by  John  K.  Cheyney,  a  man  of 
large  interests  in  this  and  other  enterprises. 

The  growth  of  the  Greek  population  has  been  phenomenal.  The 
United  States  census  of  1900  gives  the  State  of  Florida  a  total  of 
98  Greeks.  The  Thermopylae  Almanac  of  1904  gives  Florida  a 
Greek  population  of  182  divided  among  six  cities.  In  1908  the 
Greek  American  Guide  reports  1,000  Greeks  in  Florida.  When  T 
visited  Tarpon  Springs  last  winter  I  was  told  there  were  now  be- 
tween 2,000  and  2,500  Greeks  in  the  town.  All  figures  of  Greek 
population  are  fluctuating.  They  are  a  roving,  restless  people,  on 
the  lookout  for  better  opportunities,  and  are  constantly  coming  and 
going.  The  departure  of  large  numbers  to  the  Balkan  wars  upset 
the  most  careful  and  accurate  statistics.  Thus  in  1913  there  were 
only  thirty  sponge  boats  in  operation  against  more  than  one  hundred 
in  1911.    This  is  accounted  for  by  the  return  of  the  Greeks  to  the 

scene  of  conflict. 

Tarpon  Springs  offers  a  peculiarly  advantageous  field  for  a  study 
of  the  Greek  in  America.  The  small  size  of  the  town  gives  an 
opportunity  for  him  to  perpetuate  his  social  customs  untrammelled. 

57 


fit 


w 


There  are  2,000  Greeks  out  of  a  population  of  4,000  people.  In 
Qiicago,  New  York,  Lowell,  the  Greek  is  completely  overshadowed. 
He  is  a  bubble  on  the  bosom  of  a  great  lake.  In  Tarpon  Springs  he 
is  a  dominant  factor,  numerically  and  commercially. 

Tarpon  Springs  is  compact  and  represents  the  working  together 
of  many  callings,  lawyer,  doctor,  artist,  teacher,  merchant,  diver. 
It  is  the  life  of  an  Hellenic  town  transferred  to  America.  Saclar- 
ides'  art  studio,  Kaminis'  machine  shop,  Georgiadis'  bakery,  Kal- 
amakis*  grocery,  represent  business  enterprises  serving  the  whole 
community.  The  Greek  atmosphere  is  marked.  As  you  walk  along 
the  principal  street  you  note  the  signs  in  Greek  and  English.  There 
is  the  "Kalymnos"  lodging  house,  the  ''Marathon"  pool  parlor,  the 
Greek-American  bank.  Notices  are  posted  in  the  railway  station 
and  post  office  in  Greek.  Placards  announce  a  Greek  play  at  the 
theatre.  The  coffee  houses  swarm  with  a  jolly,  noisy,  good  natured 
crowd,  laughing,  smoking,  playing  cards.  There  are  two  newspapers. 
The  weekly  paper  carries  a  Greek  page  regularly.  The  "Daily 
Leader"  occasionally  publishes  a  Greek  article.  The  stable  Greek 
residents  are  enterprising  business  men  of  some  education  who  have 
a  fair  knowledge  of  English.  The  sponge  divers  can  scarcely  be 
called  residents,  because  their  calling  keeps  them  out  on  the  water 
a  large  part  of  their  time.  They  have  meagre  education.  I  ran 
across  a  diver  at  a  coffee  house  in  Tampa  who  could  not  even  read 
Greek.    But  as  far  as  I  can  discover,  this  is  a  very  exceptional  case. 

In  Tarpon  Springs  we  have  two  distinct  classes  of  Greeks.  There 
are  the  men  actually  engaged  in  the  sponge  diving,  whose  number  is 
as  changing  as  their  habitat.  They  go  back  and  forth  between  here 
and  Greece  or  Asia  Minor  and  are  quite  untouched  by  American 
life.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  those  Greeks  who  have  identified 
themselves  with  the  town.  They  represent  the  thrifty,  intelligent 
class  who  have  adopted  this  as  their  home.  There  is  no  "Greek" 
quarter.  The  Greek  families  live  alongside  American  families.  The 
Greek  lodging  houses  shelter  the  divers  when  they  are  in  port. 

Mr.  Ashland  P.  Beckett,  the  cashier  of  the  Greek-American  Bank, 
made  this  careful  estimate  of  the  resident  population  for  me  in 
January,  1914.  There  are  about  60  Greek  families  and  100  children. 
There  are  about  100  naturalized  citizens  and  more  in  waiting  for 
natttralization.     His  estimate  of  individual  Greeks  is  as  follows : 

58 


From  Calymnos   ^00 

From  Halki  4^0 

From  Aegina    ^^ 

From  scattered  points  in  Greece  and  Turkey . . .  200 

He  pays  high  tribute  to  their  excellent  record  as  citizens,  but  adds 
"they  are  very  factious." 

The  principal  of  the  school  (M.  W.  Greene)  gives  me  the  follow- 
ing information  about  the  Greek  children:  "There  are  about  40 
Greek  children  in  our  school,  nearly  all  of  them  in  one  room  (for 
the  sake  of  learning  English).  All  teachers  who  have  anything  to 
do  with  them  report  them  quite  bright  as  a  class.  The  teacher  who 
has  charge  of  most  of  them— including  all  beginners— has  had  con- 
siderable experience  teaching  children  of  various  nationalities  and 
likes  the  Greeks  better  than  any  other  foreigners  she  ever  had,  say- 
ing that  they  surpass  the  others  in  nearly  every  respect,  including 
the  ability  to  learn  English.  Their  greatest  difficulty  is  to  learn 
verbs.  We  find  them  a  rather  noisy  bunch,  but  not  vicious.  There 
are  only  two  or  three  above  the  fourth  grade,  but  I  think  the  chief 
trouble  is  that  they  have  not  had  a  teacher  who  understood  them 
and  could  give  them  the  character  of  instruction  they  needed.  If 
we  can  retain  our  present  teacher,  I  am  sure  we  can  hold  a  good 
many  more  than  have  been  remaining  in  school." 

I  was  told  further  by  observers  that  the  Greek  children  were 
especially  apt  in  arithmetic  and  mathematics. 

It  was  also  suggested  that  one  reason  why  they  do  not  continue 
their  schooling  further  is  because,  owing  to  the  absence  of  child 
labor  legislation  in  Florida,  many  can  enter  upon  industrial  life  at 
an  earlier  age  than  in  some  of  our  eastern  states.  I  paid  three  visits 
to  Tarpon  Springs  within  the  past  three  years. 

In  January,  1912,  I  spent  a  day  with  the  Rev.  Christy  Angelopou- 
lis,  the  Greek  priest.  He  entertained  me  at  a  luncheon  in  a  Greek 
restaurant  with  a  number  of  Greeks.  A  representative  of  the  Greek 
newspaper,  "The  Pan  Hellenic,"  was  among  the  company.  In  the 
afternoon  I  attended  a  reception  to  the  County  Commissioners  at 
the  Greek- American  Political  Club  and  at  night  I  witnessed  a  Greek 

play  at  the  theater. 
The  Greek- American  Political  Club  had  its  headquarters  in  a  very 

59 


comfortable,  well  appointed  dwelling  house  on  Tarpon  avenue,  the 
principal  street.  The  rooms  on  this  occasion  were  profusely  dec- 
orated and  there  were  several  American  guests.  Mr.  George  Mein- 
danis,  the  president  of  the  club,  delivered  this  characteristic  speech 
in  excellent  English  : 

"The  Athenian,  the  first  lawgiver  that  history  speaks  of,  passed  a 
law  in  Athens  decreeing  that  every  citizen  should  take  part  with  one 
political  party  or  another.  He  who  remained  indifferent  was  con- 
sidered dishonest  or  a  traitor.  And  he  was  right.  Any  man  who 
lives  in  a  town  and  takes  no  interest  in  the  welfare  of  it,  which  much 
depends  on  the  good  or  bad  management  of  its  affairs,  is  not  worthy 
of  living.  It  is  true  that  all  of  us  cannot  take  part  in  this  manage- 
ment of  the  political  affairs,  yet  we  have  a  voice  in  it  through  our 
vote,  and  we  are  instrumental  in  the  election  of  those  who  look  after 
the  public  interest.  I  think  the  existence  of  political  clubs  indis- 
pensable in  order  to  educate  the  masses  and  prevent  a  gross  wrong 
in  the  use  of  the  vote.  With  this  object  in  view  this  club  was  estab- 
lished, its  principal  aim  being  the  education  of  the  masses  and  to 
cooperate  in  the  upbuilding  of  town  and  state."^"^* 

The  address  impressed  me  by  its  intensely  Hellenic  spirit.  Here 
in  a  town  on  our  Gulf  coast  I  heard  words  that  awakened  vividly 
the  dominant  ideals  of  Athens  of  the  fifth  century.  For  several 
years  this  club  has  played  an  important  part  in  the  life  of  the  town 
and  gives  expression  to  that  interest  in  political  affairs  which  is  so 
uniformly  characteristic  of  Greeks  ancient  and  modern.  After  the 
speech  making,  refreshments  were  served  —  light  wine,  cordial, 
coffee  and  Greek  candy. 

In  January,  1914,  I  was  present  at  the  Greek  Epiphany  celebra- 
tion. The  church  fills  a  big  place  in  the  life  of  Tarpon  Springs. 
The  unpretentious  frame  edifice  was  built  in  1909.  On  this  occa- 
sion the  building  was  decorated  with  Greek  and  American  flags  and 
brilliantly  illuminated  with  electric  lights — several  hundred  bulbs  so 
arranged  as  to  outline  the  building.  The  scene  at  night  was  very 
impressive. 

The  Greek  Epiphany  occurs  on  January  19th.  At  this  time  com- 
memoration is  made  of  the  baptism  of  Christ.^^^  This  is  observed 
in  all  countries  where  the  Eastern  Church  predominates.  One  feature 
is  the  blessing  of  the  waters.    Kropatkin  mentions  this  observance 


60 


in  Russia.^'^®  I  am  told  that  a  colony  of  Bulgarians  in  Pennsylvania 
carry  out  similar  ceremonies  in  the  Susquehanna  River.^^^  In 
Greece,  especially  at  Syra  and  at  coast  towns,  the  day  is  celebrated 
on  a  scale  of  great  elaborateness.  The  pious  Greek  believes  that 
fair  weather  follows  the  blessing  of  the  water,  and  steamers  often 
await  the  ceremony  before  sailing.^"^ 

At  Tarpon  Springs  all  elements  are  present  for  the  reproduction 
of  the  traditions  and  ceremonies  of  the  homeland.  Here  is  a  coast 
town  with  a  predominantly  Greek  population  of  seafaring  people 
to  whom  the  service  appeals  forcefully.  The  celebration  is  unique 
and  attracts  tourists  from  all  over  the  United  States. 

I  arrived  on  the  evening  before.  The  streets  swarmed  with  peo- 
ple and  the  populace  was  astir.  I  passed  two  men  carrying  an  icon 
toward  the  bayou  where  flags  and  decorations  were  already  in  evi- 
dence. The  coffee  houses  were  thronged  with  Greeks.  American 
and  Greek  flags  floated  from  nearly  every  building  along  Tarpon 
avenue.  The  services  at  the  church  began  at  eight  o'clock  the  next 
morning  and  lasted  three  hours.  The  congregation  stood  through- 
out as  is  the  custom.^ ^^  Men  were  in  the  majority.  Mothers  came 
wheeling  their  baby  carriages  into  the  church  or  carrying  infants  in 
arms.  The  ceremony  concluded  with  the  benediction  of  water 
brought  into  the  church  in  a  large  basin,  and  the  congregation  came 
forward  with  cups,  jugs,  bottles  and  pitchers  to  secure  and  carry 
home  some  of  the  water  that  had  been  blessed. 

After  the  service  a  procession  led  by  the  priest  in  his  robes  of 
office  marched  through  the  main  street.  Music  was  provided  by  a 
local  band.  The  Greek  congregation  was  augmented  by  American 
visitors.  At  the  bayou  numerous  boats  and  launches  had  assembled. 
I  counted  nine  Greek  boats.  One  had  63  persons  on  board.  Some 
of  them  were  quaint  in  construction  and  bore  such  names  as 
"Enosis,"  "Andronike,"  "Pillaros,"  "Aretusa." 

The  priest  delivered  an  address  to  the  assembled  people  and  then 
advancing  to  the  water's  edge  threw  a  cross  into  the  bayou.  There 
was  a  splash  as  seventeen  young  Greeks  in  bathing  suits  instantly 
jumped  in  after  it.  A  few  seconds  elapsed  and  the  successful  diver 
appeared  holding  the  trophy  aloft  and  came  out  dripping  with  water 
to  receive  congratulations  of  admiring  friends.  In  the  afternoon, 
Greek  lads  went  through  the  town  with  trays  of  flowers  which  they 

61 


sold  to  the  people.    I  am  told  that  the  successful  youth  receives  a 
generous  money  gift.    In  Greece  this  often  amounts  to  as  much  as 

400  drachme.i^« 

Every  detail  of  the  observances  of  the  day  was  picturesque  and 
interesting  and  a  revelation  of  the  mental  attitude  of  the  people,  a 
dramatic  setting  of  religious  belief. 

When  we  study  closely  the  Greek  immigrant  we  discover  that  he 
brings  with  him  and  tenaciously  retains  his  distinctive  traits. 

There  is  the  same  interest  in  politics.  The  movements  of  the 
homeland  are  followed  with  keen  enthusiasm,  but  in  due  time  the 
Greek  transfers  his  interest  to  the  political  life  of  his  immediate 
environment,  as  in  Birmingham,  Alabama,  where  a  large  percentage 
of  the  Greek  population  have  become  citizens  and  are  active  in 
political  affairs,i8i  ^j.  jn  Tarpon  Springs,  Florida,  where  the  Politi- 
cal Club  has  for  its  object  the  preparation  of  its  members  for  citi- 
zenship. Twenty  per  cent,  of  the  Greeks  in  America  are  natural- 
ized or  holding  first  papers.^^^  "No  more  patriotic  people  ever  came 
to  us,"  says  Steiner,  "than  these  modern  Greeks,  and  although  that 
patriotism  is  centered  on  their  native  country  they  will  ultimately 
make  good  citizens,  and  even  before  that  day  make  splendid  poli- 
ticians, for  in  the  craft  of  politics  every  Greek  is  an  adept.^^^ 

Again,  there  is  among  the  Greeks  in  America  to-day  the  same 
individualism  so  marked  in  their  racial  history  during  the  past.^^"* 
There  is  the  same  hatred  of  restraint  issuing  in  jealousies,  feuds 
and  factions,  unwillingness  to  submit  to  authority,  intestine  quarrel - 
ings,  rivalries  of  leadership  that  repeat  themselves  in  every  depart- 
ment of  life— the  church,  the  community,  the  press.  Indeed,  Pro- 
fessor Fairchild  raises  the  question  whether  his  lack  of  reverence 
for  authority  may  not  militate  against  his  social  efficiency  and  render 
the  Greek  an  undesirable  factor  in  American  life.^^^ 

Again,  there  is  here  in  America  the  same  commercial  aptitude  and 
thrift  that  make  the  Greek  successful  beyond  his  competitors,  assur- 
ing rapid  advance.  Professor  Ross  ventures  the  assertion  that  every 
Greek  in  America  is  self-supporting.^^^  .  In  Chicago,  as  we  saw,  the 
Greek  is  looked  upon  as  a  shrewd  business  man.i^^  In  certain  lines 
he  has  well  nigh  secured  a  monopoly.^^^  The  authors  of  the  "Immi- 
gration Problem"  point  out  that  the  general  tendency  of  the  Greek 
is  to  engage  in  trade.^^^    Homer  relates  how  Glaucus  and  Diomede 

62 


met  in  battle  on  the  Trojan  plain.  The  former  challenged  his  foe 
and  inquired  concerning  his  ancestry.  When  Glaucus  unfolded  his 
high  lineage  the  two  refused  to  fight  and  swore  friendship.  The 
wily  Diomede  thereupon  suggested  an  exchange  of  arms  to  seal  the 
oath  and  gave  his  own  bronze  armor  for  the  costly  gold  armor  of 
the  Trojan  hero.^^  Thus  unconsciously  Homer  portrays  the  in- 
stinct for  keen  bargaining,  which  is  no  less  pronounced  in  the  Greek 
in  America  to-day  and  makes  him  a  clever  tradesman. 

Again,  racial  intolerance  has  been  carried  over  into  America. 
Speaking  of  the  gangs  of  laborers  in  construction  work  in  the  mid- 
west the  authors  of  the  "Immigration  Problem"  say :  "Each  gang 
is  a  racial  unit  living  in  separate  cars  and  usually  in  a  separate 
camp.  Sometimes  Bulgars  and  Croats,  Croats  and  Roumanians  and 
Italians  were  found  in  the  same  camp,  but  it  seemed  that  Greeks 
could  not  live  peaceably  with  any  other  race."^®^ 

There  is  among  the  Greeks  in  America  the  same  passionate  devo- 
tion to  Hellas  which  leads  the  Pan-Hellenic  Union  to  make  explicit 
provision  for  the  teaching  of  the  mother  tongue.  Greeks  every- 
where are  unfailing  in  their  loyalty  to  the  mother  country,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  57,000  volunteers  from  the  United  States  entered  the 
ranks  of  the  fighters  during  the  Balkan  war.^®^  "The  blood  and 
brains  of  Greeks,"  says  Burrows,  "in  their  settlements  all  over  the 
world — England,  France,  America,  even  in  the  little  colony  of 
Australia  unheard  of  before  the  (Balkan)  war — are  at  the  service 
of  Greece."^^^ 

Above  all,  the  Greeks  are  at  one  with  their  past  in  an  intense  loy- 
alty to  their  religious  faith  that  even  verges  on  bigotry.  The  Hel- 
lenic mind  is  as  violently  disputatious  here  in  America  as  in  the 
days  of  the  Ecumenical  Councils.  "Bulgars  and  Roumanians," 
say  the  authors  of  "The  Immigration  Problem,"  "must  be  kept 
apart  from  Greeks,  both  of  the  former  being  secessionists  from 
the  Church  of  the  Greek  Patriarch,  with  tendencies  anti-fraternal 
in  a  high  degree."^^ 

All  these  facts  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  practical  ques- 
tion. Does  the  Greek  afford  good  material  for  the  making  of  an 
American  citizen  ?  My  own  answer  is  an  emphatic  affirmative.  By 
tradition  and  temper  the  Greek  is  predisposed  toward  the  best  ideals 
of  this  country.    By  reason  of  his  historic  love  of  statesmanships 

63 


I 


democratic  spirit,  self-reliance,  initiative  and  thrift  he  will  become 
a  valuable  asset  to  American  life,  and  even  unwillingness  to  submit 
to  authority,  which  in  Fairchild's  opinion  might  prove  detrimental, 
will  find  a  corrective,  I  think,  in  the  reaction  upon  him  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  spirit  of  law  and  order  so  potent  in  his  new  environ- 
ment.^^^ 


64 


CONCLUSION. 

We  have  endeavored  to  trace  the  survival  of  certain  traits  and 
institutions  through  the  long  course  of  Greek  history.  We  have 
noted  their  persisteifce  in  spite  of  the  admixture  of  Hellenic  blood 
with  that  of  ten  successive  peoples.  These  institutions  and  traits  in 
their  ensemble  make  up  the  Hellenic  type  of  character  which  is  as 
distinct  as  German,  French  or  Anglo-Saxon.  They  have  been  trans- 
mitted by  social  heredity.  They  belong  to  the  sociological,  not  the 
biological  field,  because  nationality  rests  on  social  heredity.  We 
sometimes  speak  of  racial  or  national  traits  as  something  fixed,  un- 
changeable, innate.  But  we  are  coming  to  recognize  that  they  are 
largely  matters  of  social  inheritance.  The  persistent  reaction  of  a 
people  as  a  whole  in  a  certain  way  for  generations  has  established 
certain  types  in  language,  character  and  institutions.  As  one  puts  it : 
"A  racial  group  which  for  many  generations  is  subject  to  the  same 
physical,  social  and  political  environment  develops  certain  character- 
istics which  seem  to  be  bred  in  the  bone.  But  let  the  environment 
be  radically  changed  and  a  marvelous  transformation  will  often  take 

place."i»5 

Customs  and  beliefs  embody  themselves  in  the  family,  the  state, 
the  legislation,  the  government,  the  religious  life.  The  social  mind 
moulds  the  individual  in  conformity  to  the  social  type.  "Besides 
his  physical  inheritance  of  bodily  form,  size,  appearance,  his  in- 
stincts and  mental  predispositions  and  capacities,"  says  Bolton, 
"every  child  receives  a  social  inheritance  in  the  form  of  language, 
institutions,  laws,  customs,  printed  literature  and  the  results  of  sci- 
entific achievements  which  at  once  put  him  a  long  way  ahead  in  the 
march  of  civilization.  Without  them  his  physical  heritage  would  be 
incapable  of  securing  him  much  advancement."*^® 

This  thesis  is  concerned  with  this  social  inheritance. 

There  is  a  distinction  between  nature  and  nurture.  In  the  flush 
of  the  wonderful  and  far-reaching  significance  of  the  Darwinian 
theory  of  evolution  there  has  been  a  temptation  to  account  for  all 
things  by  a  reference  to  human  nature.  Discrimination  has  cor- 
rected the  perspective  and  we  are  beginning  to  recognize  that  not 
human  "nature"  but  human  "nurture"  is  the  factor  of  larger  im- 

65 


portance.  "Social  heredity,"  says  Conn,  is  concerned  with  the  trans- 
mission from  generation  to  generation  of  the  highest  attributes  of 
mankind,  whereas  organic  evolution  is  concerned  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  lowest,  that  is,  those  which  we  sometimes  call  the  animal 
characteristics."^^"^ 

Physical  heredity  manifests  itself  in  stature,  weight,  color,  facial 
features,  the  proportions  of  cranium,  thorax,  vertebrae,  teeth,  etc. 
Longevity  is  an  ancestral  bequest.  Good  and  poor  eyesight  are 
family  characteristics.  Color  blindness  is  hereditary.  Tendencies 
to  specific  diseases  are  inherited.^^^ 

Galton  holds  that  not  only  physical  and  mental  traits  are  heredi- 
tary, but  that  genius  follows  the  law  of  organic  transmission  and  is 
an  affair  of  blood  and  breed.^^^  He  made  patient,  painstaking  inves- 
tigations to  establish  his  contention.  He  finds  certain  families  cele- 
brated for  artistic  genius,  or  musical  ability,  for  scientific  distinction 
or  literary  achievements. 

The  statesman's  type  of  ability,  he  thinks,  is  largely  transmitted  or 
inherited.  "The  combination  of  high  intellectual  gifts,  tact  in  deal- 
ing with  men,  power  of  expression  in  debate  and  ability  to  endure 
exceeding  hard  work  is  hereditary.^^oo  "There  cannot  remain  a 
doubt,"  he  says,  in  concluding  his  investigations,  "that  the  peculiar 
type  of  ability  necessary  to  a  judge  is  often  transmitted  by 
descent."2oi 

Galton  even  goes  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  the  type  of  ability  of 
a  commander  is  a  matter  of  heredity.202  Bolton  thinks  the  high 
grade  intellectual  ability  necessary  to  certain  callings  is  a  matter  of 
heredity,  but  adds,  "I  should  not  argue  that  particular  callings  are 
determined  by  heredity.  That  is  largely  a  matter  of  imitation  or 
chance."203 

I  think  we  must  use  the  utmost  caution  in  drawing  conclusions, 
because  in  any  discussion  of  mental  traits,  talent,  genius,  special 
aptitude,  it  is  necessary  to  give  due  weight  to  the  influence  of  social 
heredity  registered  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  home,  the  traditions  of 
the  family,  the  influences  of  early  training,  unconsciously  moulding 
the  individual  in  conformity  to  a  definite  type  and  directing  the 
trend  of  his  life  toward  a  specific  goal.  The  spirit  of  the  commu- 
nity, the  dominant  ideals  of  the  age,  represent  decisive  factors  in 
bringing  to  fruition  the  latent  character  of  the  individual.  Social 
conditions,  as  Giddings  points  out,  determine  for  each  individual 

66 


what  element  of  his  personality  shall  be  played  upon  by  influences 
that  strengthen  or  weaken;  what  suggestions  shall  consciously  or 
unconsciously  give  direction  to  his  thought  and  quality  to  his  feel- 
ing, and  so  at  length,  determination  to  his  will.^^*  "One  period 
favors  the  soldier ;  another,  the  business  man ;  another,  the  poet  or 
man  of  science.  If  a  man  is  born  when  men  care  nothing  for  the 
things  in  which  he  might  excel,  he  never  realizes  the  possibilities  of 
his  nature."205 

Bolton  thinks  that  physical  heredity  marks  out  in  broad  outlines 
the  limits  of  the  abilities  of  each  individual.  He  regards  mathe- 
matical power,  linguistic  capacity,  the  deUcacy  of  touch  which  will 
give  surgical  skill,  artistic  imagination,  as  inborn.^^^ 

Granting  to  biological  heredity  the  most  that  can  reasonably  be 
claimed  for  it  in  both  the  physical  and  mental  sphere,  we  still  find  a 
vast  realm  that  lies  entirely  beyond  its  sweep.  The  contention  of 
this  thesis  is  that  many  things  that  play  a  most  important  role  in 
man's  development  can  in  no  wise  be  brought  under  the  category  of 
biological  heredity. 

Political  institutions,  laws,  language,  religious  faith,  moral  quali- 
ties, national  characteristics,  are  all  transmitted  by  social  heredity. 
And  yet  these  very  factors  contribute  most  largely  to  man's  devel- 
opment and  are  in  a  great  measure  the  determining  forces. 

Compare  the  effect  of  the  free,  progressive  American  democracy 
under  which  we  live  with  China,  where  slavish  reverence  for  the 
past  has  shaped  the  body  politic,  creating  poverty,  congestion  of 
population,  political  stagnation,  and  stifling  originality  in  thought 
and  scholarship.  Plow  irresistibly  the  social  heredity  works  in  each 
case  toward  the  production  of  a  specific  type. 

Or  look  at  the  matter  of  language,  which  has  played  such  an 
important  role  in  civilization.^o"^  The  languages  of  savage  tribes 
lack  abstract  terms.  One  Zulu  tribe  has  ten  names  for  different 
kinds  of  cows,  but  no  word  for  "cow."  The  Tasmanian  has  several 
words  representing  different  kinds  of  trees,  but  no  word  for  "tree." 
There  is  "hopeless  poverty  in  power  of  abstraction."2<>8  How  great 
must  be  the  effect  on  a  people's  character  of  a  mother  tongue  which 
by  its  very  richness  of  vocabulary  bespeaks  a  high  place  in  the  scale 

of  culture  \^^^ 

Or  turn  to  religious  faith  and  to  moral  qualities,  which  latter  have 
little  connection  with  biological  qualities,  but  are,  as  Bolton  says, 

67 


i 


"much  more  coefficients  of  environment  and  social  heredity."2io 
These  exert  a  profound  influence  on  a  people's  life.  Who  can  fol- 
low intelligently  the  trend  of  Chinese  history  without  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  moral  and  religious  ideals  enshrined  in  ancestor 
worship?  How  impossible  to  appreciate  the  history  of  the  Slavic 
nations  without  a  knowledge  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  which  is 
woven  so  intimately  into  the  whole  fabric  of  their  life. 

Or,  finally,  who  would  undertake  to  estimate  the  significance  to 
political  psychology  of  that  intangible,  elusive  "something"  which  in 
want  of  a  better  name  we  call  the  "national  spirit"  ?  Nationality  is 
an  artificial,  not  a  natural  distinction,  but  how  impossible  for  any 
individual  to  escape  the  pressure  of  the  ideals  that  are  created  by 
legend  and  folklore  and  by  the  type  of  national  hero  enshrined  in 
song  and  poetry.  We  noted  in  our  study  of  the  Greeks  how  belief 
in  their  classic  ancestry  has  of  itself  been  potent  to  mould  Hellenic 
character  in  conformity  to  a  definite  standard.  This  has  a  psycho- 
logical significance  that  admits  of  wide  application.  We  see  an 
illustration  in  Roumania,  where  the  people  claim  to  be  descendants 
of  Trajan's  colonists.  The  sentiment  colors  their  whole  life  and 
aspirations,  determines  their  national  affiliations  and  sways  their 
sympathies  toward  the  Latin  peoples  of  the  west. 

Professor  Robinson  puts  us  on  our  guard  against  the  danger  of 
mistaking  the  artificial  achievements  of  human  nurture  for  traits  of 
human  nature.  This  distinction,  old  as  Plato,  is  coming  now  to  the 
forefront  and  is  of  supreme  importance  to  sound  sociological  con- 
clusions. "There  is  no  reason  to  think  that  one  particle  of  culture 
ever  gets  into  the  blood  of  our  human  species.  It  must  be  either 
transmitted  by  imitation  or  inculcation  or  be  lost.  We  doubtless 
inherit  aptitudes  from  parents,  grandparents  or  remoter  ancestors, 
but  any  actual  exercise  they  may  have  made  of  their  faculties  which 
we  share  with  them  cannot  influence  us  except  by  example  or  emu- 
lation. It  is  education  which  has  made  us  what  we  are ;  education 
in  its  broad  sense,  including  all  that  has  come  to  a  man  from  asso- 
ciation since  infancy  with  civilized  companions."^^^ 

To  conclude  —  any  adequate  interpretation  of  individuals  and 
peoples  demands  that  we  read  them  oif  in  terms  not  only  of  biologi- 
cal but  of  social  heredity,  and  in  estimating  the  relative  spheres  of 
various  factors  we  must  often  assign  to  social  heredity  the  pre- 
eminent place. 

68 


I 


LIST  OF  CITATIONS  FROM  AND  REFERENCES  TO 

AUTHORITIES. 

1.  Introduction  to  Sociology,  Scribner,  1905,  p.  79. 

2.  Social  Heredity  and  Social  Evolution,  Eaton  &  Mains,  1914,  p.  26. 

3.  Textbook  of  Sociology,  Dealey  &  Ward,  McMillan,  1905,  p.  304.    See  also 

Pure  Sociology,  Ward,  McMillan,  1903,  pp.  34  and  573. 

4.  Social  Heredity  and  Social  Evolution,  pp.  25-27. 

5.  Psychology  of  Peoples,  McMillan,  1898,  p.  182. 

6.  Theory  of  the  State,  Clarendon  Press,  1885,  p.  80. 

7.  Modern  Greece,  McMillan,  1901,  p.  50. 

8.  Geschichte  der  Halbinsel,  Morea,  Stuttgart,  1830,  p.  4. 

9.  Psychology  of  Socialism,  McMillan,  1899,  p.  206. 

10.  Effects  of  Tropical  Light,  Rebman,  1905,  p.  237. 

11.  Man  Past  and  Present,  Cambridge  Press,  1899,  p.  545. 

12.  Races  of  Man,  Scribner,  1900,  p.  347. 

13.  The  Balkans,  Meth.  Bk.  Concern,  1914,  p.  39. 

14.  Modern  Greece,  p.  49.  .   „„     ,       xr    .       t^     •        lonT 

15.  Modern  Greek  as  a  Fighting  Man,  B.  I.  Wheeler,  N.  Am.  Review,  1897. 

16.  Races  of  Europe,  Appleton,  1899,  p.  409. 

17.  The  Nearer  East,  Appleton,  1902,  p.  149. 

18.  Greek  Immigration,  Yale  Press,  1911,  p.  20. 

19.  Modern  Greece,  p.  1. 

20.  Rambles  and  Studies  in  Greece,  Coates,  1900,  p.  23. 

21.  The  City  State,  McMillan,  1893,  Chap.  II.  et  al. 

22.  Pre-Christian  Education,  Longmans  Green,  1900,  p.  303. 
23   Aeneid  6  846. 

24!  History  of  Greece,  Murray,  1869,  Vol.  3,  p.  466. 

25.  Grote's  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  3,  p  466. 

26.  Republic  4,  423  (Davis  and  Vaughan's  translation,  McMillan,  1912,  p.  121). 

27.  Politics,  Jowett-Clarendon  Press,  1885,  Vol.  I,  p.  124. 

28.  Bk.  11,37. 

29.  Republic  4,  435  (Davis  and  Vaughan,  p.  138). 

30.  Cities  of  St.  Paul,  Armstrong  &  Son,  1908,  p.  35. 

31.  Theory  of  the  State,  p.  431. 

32.  Age  of  Pericles,  Grant,  Scribner.  1893  p   144  et  seq 

33.  Student's  History  of  Philosophy,  A.  K.  Rogers,  McMillan,  1904,  p.  44. 

34.  Athens  the  Violet  Crowned,  L.  Whiting,  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  1913,  p.  5. 

35.  Crown  of  Wild  Olive,  Lecture  III. 

36.  Herodotus  VI,  12. 

37.  North  American  Review,  1897. 

38.  Life  of  Ancient  Greeks,  Appleton,  1902,  p.  197. 

39.  L'evolution  du  commerce,  Pans,  1897. 

40.  Aeneid  2,  49. 

41.  Satire  3,  62. 

42.  Modern  Greece,  p.  5. 

43.  Anabasis,  Bk.  4. 

44.  Laws  of  Imitation,  Holt.  1903,  p.  20. 

45.  Social  Evolution,  McMillan,  1898,  p.  270. 

69 


M^ 


I- 


III; 


V 


46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 

55 
56. 

57. 
58. 

59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 

69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 

n. 

78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 
96. 
97. 


(See  also  Growth  of  Classical  Greek 


Orient  and  Greece,  McMillan,  1902,  p.  178. 

Greek  Imperialism,  Houghton  Miflm,  1913,  p.  61. 

Effects  of  Tropic  Light,  p.  236. 

Malaria,  Jones,  Ross  &  Ellett,  McMillan  &  Bowes,  1907,  pp.  19  and  88. 

Greek  Art  and  National  Life,  S.  C.  K.  Smith,  Scnbner,  1914,  p.  235. 

City  State,  p.  13. 

Greek  Art  and  National  Life,  p.  157. 

Greek  Religion,  Farnell,  p.  68. 

Greek  Religion,  Farnell,  p.  24.      , 

Poetry,  Jebb,  Houghton  Miflin,  1893,  p.  15.) 
Orpheus,  Reinach,  Putnam,  1909,  p.  90. 
Pre-Christian  Education,  pp.  202-210. 
Greek  ReUgion,  Farnell,  p.  98. 
Greek  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  W.  Miller,  George  Newnes,  1905,  pp. 

159  and  161. 
Greece  of  the  Hellenes,  Garnett,  Pitman,  1914,  p.  149. 
Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  Appleton,  1912,  p.  274. 
Social  Evolution,  McMillan,  1908.  p.  297. 
Introduction  to  Sociology,  Scribner,  1905,  p.  72. 
Russia  of  the  Russians,  Williams,  Scribner,  1914,  p.  4. 
The  Nearer  East,  p.  246. 
Introduction  to  Sociology,  p.  62. 
New  Greece,  Sergeant,  Fisher  Unwin,  1897,  Ch.  VI. 

Modern  Greece,  p.  128.  „t^,,o  t      j 

Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece,  Rennell  Rodd,   Stott,  London, 

Greece  of  the  20th  Century,  Martin,  Fisher  Unwin,  1913,  p.  301. 

Greek  Life,  Miller,  pp.  35  and  39. 

Quoted  by  Jebb,  Modern  Greece,  p.  118. 

Rambles  and  Studies  in  Greece,  p.  239. 

New  Greece,  p.  257. 

Modern  Greece,  pp.  98  and  127. 

Greek  Life,  Miller,  p.  246. 

Greece  of  20th  Century,  p.  185. 

Athens  the  Violet  Crowned,  Whiting,  p. 

Greece  of  the  Hellenes,  p.  72. 
Modern  Greece,  Jebb,  p.  154,  and  New  Greece,  Sergeant,  Ch. 
Greeks  of  To-Day,  Putnam,  1872,  p.  338. 
Rambles  and  Studies,  p.  245. 
Greek  Life,  Miller,  p.  26. 
Greece  of  20th  Century,  p.  185. 
Greeks  of  To-Day,  p.  100. 
North  American  Review,  1897. 

With  the  Greeks  in  Thessaly,  W.  K.  Ross,  L.  C.  Page  &  Co.,  p.  28. 
Greek  Life,  Miller,  p.  244. 
Greek  Life,  Miller,  p.  7. 
Greek  Immigration,  Fairchild,  p.  66. 
The  Balkans,  Sloane,  p.  167. 

Greek  Life,  Miller,  p.  243;  also  Greece  of  Hellenes,  p.  31. 
North  American  Review,  1897. 

Hellas  and  the  Balkan  Wars,  Cassavetti,  Dodd,  Mead,  1914,  p.  75. 
The  Balkans,  Sloane,  237. 
Athens  the  Violet  Crowned,  p.  356. 
Greece  of  the  Hellenes,  p.  130. 
New  Greece,  Sergeant,  p.  261. 
Lenormant,  quoted  by  Jebb,  Modern  Greece,  p.  123. 

70 


194.    Greek  Life,  Miller,  p.  112. 


VI. 


98.  The  Balkan  Wars,  Schurman,  Princeton  Press,  1914,  p.  19. 

yy.  iNortn  .miiencau  iveview,  loy/. 
luu.  urccKS  01   io-aay,  p.  oti. 
lUi.  UreeK  i-iie  in   ±owu  ana  Country,  p.  14. 
lUZ.  i50ciai  1^11  e  in  Ureece,  iviaaany,  ivxciviilian,  1902,  p.  183. 
100.   ine  uiaour,  line  i04. 

lU4.  Greeks  oi   io-aay,  p.  342.  ,•  r    * 

lUD.  irenuanence   oi   ureeK    lype,    E.    A.    Grosvenor — Proceedings   of   Am. 

Antiq.  boc.  Vol.  Al,  /vpr.  1697. 
lUo.  Hellas  ana  tne  iJaiKan  wars,  p.  Zy9. 
iU/.  t-ermanence  ot  UreeK  lype  (,see  102  above). 
iU6.  UreeKs  ot   io-day,  p.  34o. 
lUy.  UreeK  1-ite  in  iown  and  Country,  p.  14. 
iiU.  KamDles  and  btudies,  p.  24/.     i::.dition  of  1900. 
111.  Greece  ot  tlie  ^Utn  century,  p.  166. 
ilZ.  (jrreece  ot  tne  ^um  century,  p.  -^z6. 
li^.  Daily  Consular  and  iraae  reports,  November  11,  1913. 
114.  Uaiiy  Consular  and  Iraae  Keports,  July  14,  19i4. 

113.  cnristian  Crreece  (, trans.  Dy  Jonn,  Marquis  of  tiute),  Gardner,  London, 
I6y0. 

116.  North  American  Review,  1897. 

117.  Greece  of  the  20th  Century,  p.  173. 

118.  The  Greek   Church,   by   Princess   Dora  D'Istria,  in  American   Church 

Review,  July,  1881. 

119.  Juvenal's   Satires,   edited  by  Chase,   Eldredge  &  Bro.,   Phila.,   1885,  p. 

263,  Note  271. 

120.  B.  I.  Wheeler  in  North  American  Review,  1897. 

121.  Greek  Athletic  Sport,  E.  M.  Gardiner,  McMillan,  1910,  p.  320  (Anaent 

vs.  Modern  Discus  Throwing). 

122.  Greek  Life.  Miller,  p.  2.  . 

123.  The  Bulgarian  Exarchate,  Richard  von  Mach,  Fisher  Unwin,  1907,  p.  91. 

124.  Athens  the  Violet  Crowned,  Whiting,  p.  211. 

125.  Rambles  and  Studies,  etc.,  p.  416. 

126.  Modern  Greece,  p.  51. 

127.  History  of  Greece,  Finlay,  Oxford,  1877,  Vol.  4. 

128   When  I  Was  a  Boy  in  Greece,  Demetrios    Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard, 
1913,  p.  14. 

129.  Rambles  and  Studies,  Edition  of  1900,  p.  416. 

130.  The  War  in  Europe,  Hart,  Appleton,  1914,  p.  65. 

131.  Study  of  Eastern  Orthodox  Church,  Lacey,  Gorham,  1912,  p.  30  et  seq. 

132.  Psychology  of  Peoples,  p.  85. 

133.  The  World's  Peoples,  Keane,  Putnam,  1908,  p.  183. 

134.  The  World's  Peoples,  Keane,  Putnam,  1908,  p.  187. 

135.  Social  Psychology,  E.  A.  Ross,  McMillan,  1908,  pp.  143,  256,  258,  273. 

136.  Greece  of  the  Hellenes,  p.  170. 

137.  Greek  Lands  and  Letters,  Allinson,  Houghton,  Miflin,  1909,  p.  30. 

138.  Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece,  Rodd,  p.  140. 

139.  Modern  Greek  Folklore,  Lawson,  Cam.  Press,  1910,  p.  44. 

140.  Greece  of  the  Hellenes,  Ch.  14. 

141.  New  Greece,  Cassell,  Peter  &  Galpin,   1878,  p.  81;  and  Customs   and 

Lore  of  Modern  Greece,  Rodd,  p.  132. 

142.  Modern   Greek   Folklore,   Lawson,  p.   557.      (See  also  Greece  of  20th 

Century,  p.  331.)  ,      r«    , 

143.  Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece,  Rodd,  p.  122.     (See  also  Tucker- 

man,   Greeks  of   To-day,  p.  49;   Greece  of  20th  Century,  p.  331; 
Athens  the  Violet  Crowned,  p.  35.) 

71 


l\ 


144.  Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece,  p.  126;  see  also  Greeks  of  To-day, 

145.  Wh?n  1  Was  a  Boy  in  Greece,  G.  Demetrios,  Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard, 

146.  Studfes^'o^f'  Greek  Poets,  Symonds,  A   &  C.  Black,  London,  1902  Vol  j 

p.  288.  and  Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece,  Rodd.p   136.    (bee 
also  Modern  Greek  Folklore,  Lawson,  p.  35,  and  When  I  Was  a  Boy 

in  Greece,  p.  60.)  ini>i    «    lo 

147.  The  Balkan  Wars,  Schurman,  Prmceton  Press,  1914,  p.  IV. 

148   Greek  Immigration,  Fairchild,  p.  64.  „.„,,,         n      mio 

m  The  Immigration  Problem,  Jenks  &  Lauck,  Funk  &  Wagnalls.  1912.  p. 

170 

150.  Immigration.  Fairchild,  McMillan   1913   p.  192 

151.  The  New  Immigration,  Roberts.  McMi  an,  1912,  p.  271. 

152.  The  New  Immigration,  Roberts,  McMi  an,  1912,  p.  204. 

153.  The  New  Immigration,  Roberts  McMillan,  1912,  p.  207.  , 

154.  Greeks  in  America,  Burgess,  Sherman.  French  &  Co.,  1913,  p.  68.  and 

Greek  Immigration,  p.  209. 

155.  The  Immigration  Problem,  Jenks  &  Lauck,  p.  UJ. 

156.  Greeks  of  To-day,  p.  120. 

157.  Greeks  in  America,  p.  37. 

158.  Social  Life  in  Greece,  Mahaffy,  McMillan.  1902  P.  46.        ,       ^      ,    .  ;f. 
159   Hellas  and  the  Balkan  Wars,  Cassavetti.  p.  170.     (See  also  Greek  Life 

in  Town  and  Country,  pp.  205  and  211,  and  Greek  Immigration,  p.  37.) 

160.  Immigration,  Fairchild,  p.  332. 

161.  Immigration,  Fairchild,  p.  333. 

162    The  Immigration  Problem,  p.  171.  ^      ,     .      a 

IM.  GreekT  in  Chicago,  Am.  Jour,  of  Soc,  Nov.  1909  (see  Greeks  in  Amer- 

ica,  p.  134). 

164.  Immigration,  Fairchild,  p.  275.  ,       ^      ,    r       •       *•        rT^i^^ui^A 

165.  The  New  Immigration,  p.  181.     See  also  Greek  Immigration,  Fairchild, 

p.  155. 

166.  The  New  Immigration,  p.  276. 

167.  Greeks  in  Chicago,  Am.  Jour,  of  Soc,  Nov.,  1909. 

168.  Greek  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  p.  137. 

169.  The  New  Immigration,  p.  210. 

170.  Greek  Immigration,  Fairchild,  p.  132;  also  p.  144  and  p.  151. 

171.  Greeks  in  America,  ch.  9. 

172.  Greek  Immigration,  Fairchild,  p.  139. 

173.  Greek  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  p.  225  et  seq. 

174.  Tarpon  Sorings  Leader,  Jan.  20,  1912. 

175.  Greece  of  the  Hellenes,  p.  164 

176.  Memoirs  of  a  Revolutionist,  Houghton  Miflm   1899  p.  14«. 

177.  This  statement  was  made  to  me  by  the  Prot.  Epis.  Bishop  of  Harnsburg, 

Dr.  Darlington. 

178.  Greek  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  p.  101. 

179.  Studv  of  Eastern  Orth.  Church,  Lacev.  p.  32. 

180.  Greek  Life  in  Town  and  Country,  p.  102. 

181.  Greeks  in  America.  Burgess,  p.  174. 

182.  The  Immigration  Problem,  Jenks  &  Lauck.  p.  272. 

183.  On  Trail  of  the  Immis:rant,  Steiner.  Revell.  1906,  p.  287. 

184.  Rambles  and  Studies  in  Greece,  Mahaffy,  Coates,  1900,  p.  57. 

185  Greek  Immieration.  Fairchild.  p.  239. 

186  The  Old  World  in  the  New,  Ross.  Century  Co..  1914.  p.  243. 

187.  Greeks  in  Chicago,  Am.  Jour,  of  Soc,  Nov.,  1909;  also  Greeks  in  Amer- 
ica, p.  131. 

72 


188.  Greeks  in  America,  Burgess,  p.  35. 

189.  The  Immigration  Problem,  Jenks  &  Lauck,  p.  124. 

190.  Iliad  VI.  21  et  seq.  ..or       ,         ^-r, 

191.  The  Immigration  Problem,  Jenks  &  Lauck,  p.  172. 

192.  New  Greece,  Burrows,  Quarterly  Review,  April,  1914. 

193.  New  Greece,  Burrows,  Quarterly  Review,  April,  1914. 

194.  The  Immigration  Problem,  p.  172. 

195.  Greek  Immigration,  p.  239. 

196.  Gospel  of  the  Kingdom,  Jan.,  1915,  p  5. 

197.  Principles  of  Education,  Bolton,  Scribner,  1910,  p.  9. 

198.  Social  Heredity  and  Social  Evolution,  p.  27. 

199.  Principles  of  Education,  Bolton,  pp.  183-189. 

200.  Hereditary  Genius,  Galton,  Appleton,  1871,  Preface,  p.  vi. 

201.  Hereditary  Genius,  Galton,  Appleton,  1871,  p.  110. 

202.  Hereditary  Genius,  Galton,  Appleton,  1871,  p.  69. 

203.  Hereditary  Genius,  Galton,  Appleton,  1871,  p.  149. 

204.  Principles  of  Education,  p.  191. 

205.  Principles  of  Sociology,  McMillan,  1903,  p.  380. 

206.  Principles  of  Sociology,  McMillan,  1903,  p.  327. 

207.  Principles  of  Education,  Bolton,  p.  9. 

208.  Elements  of  Sociology,  Giddings,  McMillan,  1900,  p.  24a 

209.  Social  Heredity  and  Social  Evolution,  Conn,  p.  55. 

210.  Principles  of  Education,  Bolton,  p.  609. 

211.  Principles  of  Education,  Bolton,  p.  225. 

212.  The  New  History,  Robinson,  McMillan,  1912,  p.  253. 


;| 


't 

i  ■ 


73 


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Heredity  and  Selection  in  Sociology— G.  C.  Hill.    A.  &  C.  Black,  Lon.,  1910. 

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Evolution  and  Animal  Life— Jordan  &  Kellogg.    Appleton,  1907. 

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Principles  of  Sociology— Giddings.    McMillan,  1903. 

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Homeric  Society — Keller.    Longmans,  Green,  1902. 

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Greek  Imperialism — Ferguson.    Houghton  Miflin,  1913. 

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Principles  of  Greek  Art — Gardner.    McMillan,  1914. 

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74 


Cities  of  St.  Paul— Ramsay.    Armstrong,  1908. 

Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets— Symonds.    A.  &  C.  Black,  London,  1902. 

Growth  of  Classical  Greek  Poetry— Jebb.    Houghton  Miflin,  1893. 

From  Homer  to  Theocritus — Capps.    Scribner,  1901. 

Social  Life  of  Greece— Mahaffy.    McMillan,  1902. 

Age  of  Pericles — Grant.    Scribner,  1893. 

Study  of  the  Gods  in  Greece— Dyer.    McMillan,  1891. 

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Themis — Harrison.    Cambridge  Press,  1912. 

Greek  Religion — Farnell.     Scribner,  1912. 

History  of  Religion— G.  F.  Moore.    Scribner,  1913.    (Ch.  17-21.) 

Orpheus — ^Reinach.    Putnam,  1909. 

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Christian  Greece— Bikelas  (Translation).    Gardner,  London,  1890. 

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Greek  and  Eastern  Churches — Adeney.    Scribner,  1908. 

Study  of  the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church — Lacey.    Gorham,  1912. 

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Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece — Rennell  Rodd,    Stott,  London,  1892. 

Rambles  and  Studies  in  Greece— Mahaffy.    Coates,  1900. 

Greek  Lands  and  Letters— Allinson.    Houghton,  Miflin,  1909. 

Greece  and  the  Aegean  Islands— Marden.    Houghton  Miflin,  1907. 

Aegean  Days — J.  J.  Manatt.    Murray,  London,  1913. 

Vacation  Days  in  Greece— Richardson.     Scribner,  1904. 

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Greece,  Her  Progress  and  Present  Position— A.  R.  Rangabe.    Putnam,  1867. 

Greeks  of  To-day — Tuckerman.    Putnam,  1872. 

New  Greece — Sergeant.    Fisher  Unwin,  London,  1897. 

Greece  of  the  XX  Century— Martin.    Fisher  Unwin,  1913. 

Athens  the  Violet  Crowned— Whiting.    Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  1913. 

The  Balkans— Sloane.    Meth.  Book  Concern,  1914. 

Hellas  and  the  Balkan  Wars— Cassavetti.    Dodd,  Mead,  1914. 

The  War  in  Europe— A.  B.  Hart.    Appleton,  1914. 

With  the  Greeks  in  Thessaly— Rose.    L.  C  Page  &  Co.,  1898. 

The  Balkan  Wars— Schurman.    Princeton  Press,  1914. 

The  Orient  Question— Lazarovich.    Duffield,  1913. 

When  I  Was  a  Boy  in  Greece— Demetrios.    Lathrop,  Lee  &  Shepard,  1913. 

Greece  of  the  Hellenes— Garnett.    Pitman,  London,  1914. 

Letters  from  Greece — J.  Mavrogordato.     Seeker.  London,  1914. 

The  Immigrant  Invasion— T.  J.  Warne.    Dodd,  Mead,  1913. 

The  Immigration  Problem— Jenks  &  Lauck.    Funk  &  Wagnalls,  1912. 

The  Old  World  in  the  New— Ross.    Century  Co.,  1914. 

Immigration — Fairchild.    McMillan,  1913. 

The  New  Immigration — Roberts.    McMillan,  1912. 

Greek  Immigration— Fairchild.    Yale  Press,  1902. 

The  Greeks  in  America — Burgess.    Sherman,  French  &  Co.,  1913. 

On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant— Steiner.    Revell,  1906.     (Ch.  19.) 

References  should  also  be  made  to  Plato's  Republic,  Aristotle's  Politics, 
Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  to  the  standard  histories  of  Greece  by 
Grote,  Bury,  Botsford,  Morey,  Holm,  Abbott  and  Curtius;  also  to  these 

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MAGAZINE  ARTICLES. 
The  Greeks  in  Asia— Wilson.    Asiatic  Quar.  Rev.,  Jan.,  1887.    London,  T.  F. 

T  T  * 

Pennanen"*e  of  Greek  Type— Grosvenor.    Proceedings  Am.  Antiq.  Soc,  Vol. 

XL  April,  1897,  Worcester,  Mass.,  1898.  ,,      ^   ^        .        t,     • 

The  Modern  Greek  as  a  Fighting  Man-Wheeler.    North  American  Review, 

April,  1897.  ,     ^     .         *     -i    ini.i 

New  Greece— Burrows.    Quarterly  Review.  April,  1914 
Greeks  in  Chicago,  by  Grace  Abbott.    Am   Journal  of  Sociology,  Nov.,  1909. 
The  Greek  Church,  in  American  Church  Review,  July,  1881. 


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